Methods for application of biochar

ABSTRACT

A method is provided for applying porous carbonaceous particles to soil for purpose of cultivating plants having roots, where at least 95% of the porous carbonaceous particles have a particle size less than or equal to 10 mm. The method incorporates the porous carbonaceous particles into the soil surrounding the plant roots at a depth of between 0-24 inches from the soil surface, where the porous carbonaceous particles are positioned in the area surrounding the roots of the plants at a ratio of between 1:999 to 1:1 porous carbonaceous particles to soil.

RELATED APPLICATIONS

This application is a continuation of and claims priority to U.S. patentapplication Ser. No. 15/263,227 filed on Sep. 12, 2016, whichapplication: (i) claims priority to U.S. Provisional Patent ApplicationSer. No. 62/216,638 filed on Sep. 10, 2015, titled METHODS FORAPPLICATION OF BIOCHAR, (ii) claims priority to U.S. Provisional PatentApplication Ser. No. 62/290,026 filed on Feb. 2, 2016, titled BIOCHARAGGREGATE PARTICLES, U.S. Provisional Patent Application Ser. No.62/219,501 filed Sep. 16, 2015 titled BIOCHAR SUSPENDED SOLUTION, (iii)is a continuation-in-part application of U.S. patent application Ser.No. 15/156,256 filed May 16, 2016 titled ENHANCED BIOCHAR (now U.S. Pat.No. 9,809,502), which application claims priority to U.S. ProvisionalPatent Application No. 62/162,219, filed on May 15, 2015, titledENHANCED BIOCHAR, (iv) is a continuation-in-part of U.S. patentapplication Ser. No. 14/385,986 filed on May 29, 2012, titled METHOD FORENHANCING SOIL GROWTH USING BIO-CHAR (now U.S. Pat. No. 9,493,380) whichis a 371 of PCT/US12/39862 filed on May 29, 2012, which is acontinuation-in-part of U.S. patent application Ser. No. 13/154,213filed on Jun. 6, 2011 (now U.S. Pat. No. 8,317,891); and (v) is acontinuation-in-part of U.S. patent application Ser. No. 14/036,480,filed on Sep. 25, 2013, titled METHOD FOR PRODUCING NEGATIVE CARBON FUEL(now U.S. Pat. No. 9,359,268), which is a continuation of U.S. patentapplication Ser. No. 13/189,709, filed on Jul. 25, 2011 (now U.S. Pat.No. 8,568,493); is a continuation-in-part of U.S. patent applicationSer. No. 15/184,325 filed Jun. 16, 2016, titled BIOCHAR COATED SEEDS,which claims priority to U.S. Provisional Patent Application Ser. No.62/186,876 filed Jun. 30, 2015, titled BIOCHAR COATED SEEDS; is acontinuation-in-part of U.S. patent application Ser. No. 15/184,763filed Jun. 16, 2016, titled METHOD FOR APPLICATION OF BIOCHAR IN TURFGRASS LANDSCAPING ENVIRONMENTS which claims priority to U.S. ProvisionalPatent Application Ser. No. 62/180,525 filed Jun. 16, 2015 titled METHODFOR APPLICATION OF BIOCHAR IN TURF GRASS ENVIRONMENT; is acontinuation-in-part of U.S. patent application Ser. No. 14/873,053filed on Oct. 1, 2015, titled BIOCHARS AND BIOCHAR TREATMENT PROCESSESwhich claims priority to U.S. Provisional Patent Application No.62/058,445, filed on Oct. 1, 2014, titled METHODS, MATERIALS ANDAPPLICATIONS FOR CONTROLLED POROSITY AND RELEASE STRUCTURES ANDAPPLICATIONS and U.S. Provisional Patent Application No. 62/058,472,filed on Oct. 1, 2014, titled HIGH ADDITIVE RETENTION BIOCHARS, METHODSAND APPLICATIONS; all of the above of which are incorporated in theirentirety by reference in this application.

BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION

I. Field of the Invention

The invention relates to a method for application of biochar inagricultural environments, including trees, row crops and vineyards, andin particular, an organic soil amendment produced from plant matter thatsignificantly improves soil quality to improve water and nutrientefficiency, and thus improves plant quality and crop yield.

II. Background

Biochar has been known for many years as a soil enhancer. It containshighly porous, high carbon content material similar to the type of verydark, fertile anthropogenic soil found in the Amazon Basin known asTerra Preta, which has very high charcoal content and is made from amixture of charcoal, bone, and manure. Biochar is created by thepyrolysis of biomass, which generally involves heating and/or burning oforganic matter, in a reduced oxygen environment, at a predeterminedrate. Such heating and/or burning is stopped when the matter reaches acharcoal like stage. The highly porous material of biochar is suited tohost beneficial microbes, retain nutrients, hold water and act as adelivery system for a range of beneficial compounds suited to specificapplications.

Raw biochar, while known for its soil enhancing characteristics, doesnot always benefit soil and, depending upon the biomass from which thebiochar is produced, could potentially be harmful to the soil, making itunsuitable for various types of crops or other productive uses. Inparticular, biochar can be detrimental, or even toxic, to 1) soilmicrobes involved in nutrient transport to the plant; 2) plants and 3)humans. Raw biochars derived from different biomass will have differentphysical and chemical properties and will behave quite differently. Forexample, raw biochar having pH levels too high, containing too much ashor inorganics, or containing toxins or heavy metal content too high canbe harmful and/or have minimal benefit to the soil and the plant life itsupports. Raw biochar can also contain unacceptable levels of residualorganic compounds such as acids, esters, ethers, ketones, alcohols,sugars, phenyls, alkanes, alkenes, phenols, polychlorinated biphenyls orpoly or mono aromatic hydrocarbons which are either toxic or notbeneficial to plant or animal life.

Currently, because of the unpredictable results of biochar and itspotential to be a detriment to plant life and growth, biochar has mostlybeen a scientific curiosity, has not found wide spread use, has notfound large scale commercial application, and has been relegated tosmall niche applications. It is, however, known that biochar havingcertain characteristics can host beneficial microbes, retain nutrients,hold water, and act as a delivery system for a range of beneficialcompounds suited to specific applications. Thus, it has been a continueddesire to capture the beneficial soil enhancing characteristic ofbiochar. Biochar research has continued in an attempt to harness biocharhaving predictable, controllable, and beneficial results as a soilamendment for large scale applications.

The desire to harness the benefits of biochar in commercial agricultureexists but previous academic research has been done using rates ofbiochar that are not economically justifiable nor practically feasibleto apply in a commercial agriculture setting.

Thus, given the known benefits of biochar, a need remains for largescale applications of biochar having generally sustainable, controllableand/or particular physical and chemical properties known to have thehighest positive impact on soils and that will benefit and enhance plantlife and growth in a way that is practically feasible and economical toa grower. A need exists, for an effective biochar that can be applied ina way to allow commercial agriculture to incorporate it into normalagricultural processes at a cost-effective rate in order to takeadvantage of biochar's ability to improve soil quality to allow for moreefficient use of water and nutrients. Some possible benefits ofcommercially feasible, effective application of these materials are forboth public and private entities to maintain trees, plants, turfs,lawns, crops, and grasses while improving soil health, potentiallyconserving water, and allowing for more efficient use of syntheticchemicals and nutrients—all valuable benefits in our modern world.

SUMMARY

The present invention relates to a method for applying biochar to soil,soilless media, hydroponics, or other cropping technologies and systemsto allow the soil (or other) medium, and plants planted in said medium,including trees, vines, and row crops, to benefit from improved biologyand microbiology in the rhizosphere, as well as being able to makebetter use of water and nutrients in the soil and those applied duringthe growing season. This can be particularly advantageous duringdroughts or other periods of plant stress such as intense heat, cold, ordisease. By applying biochar in agricultural environments during adrought, farmers can meet statewide goals for water conservation, whilestill maintaining their crop yield or even increasing their plant yieldwithout using additional fertilizer or other soil additives. In somecases this yield can even be obtained with reduced fertilization.

The method of the present invention for tree crops includes mixingporous carbonaceous particles (e.g., biochar) (where at least 95% of theparticles have a particle size less than or equal to 10 mm), to soil inthe root zone of the tree at a volumetric rate of 0.1% to 50%,preferably 0.3% to 20%, and even more preferably, 0.5% to 10% of biocharin the backfill. For new trees one method to do this is by mixing thebiochar with the backfill at the said volumetric rate and applyingapproximately half the mixture first to the bottom of the hole preparedfor planting a new tree, and applying the remaining half of the mixturearound the root ball of the newly planted tree during planting. In somecases, the biochar may be treated or processed in accordance with themethods outlined in U.S. patent application Ser. No. 14/873,053, orother related work which has been incorporated into this applicationpreviously by reference. In yet other cases, the biochar in this, or thefollowing application methods may be treated or processed to enhancecertain characteristics, such as pH, hydrophilicity, ion exchange, orremoval of other deleterious substances which may impede positivebenefits. Many of these modifications can be important in improving theefficacy of application—especially at lower rates.

When applying to existing tree crops, the method may include topdressing the area of soil or turf under the tree canopy in the drip zoneof an existing tree with a layer of such carbonaceous particles. Theseparticles may then be incorporated into the top 2-3″ of soil to get tothe target percentage of 0.1% to 50% by volume in the targeted area,preferably 0.3% to 20%, and even more preferably, 0.5% to 10%. Fordeeper rooted or more established trees, an auger or air spade devicemay be used to get the particles into the deeper root zones 4 to 12″deep, with a preferred (but not mandatory) objective being to deliverthe proper concentration of material within the vicinity of developing,juvenile plant root tissue.

When applying to new row crop beds prior to planting, the method mayinclude the steps of spreading such carbonaceous particles along the topof row crop beds prior to planting using a broadcast spreader andincorporating the particles into the top 2-6″ of the bed. In order to bemore efficient and thus economical a more focused application method canbe used to target the 0.1% to 50% volumetric rate targeting mostly theroot zones of the crop plants and thus reducing the application ratemeasured in cubic yards per acre. One method for doing this is to lay aband of carbonaceous materials in the plant row prior to planting thatmeasures between 2 and 18 inches and then incorporating into the top2-6″ of soil using one of many well-known agricultural techniques formixing or incorporating a material into soil, such as tilling, plowing,ripping, bedding, or drilling. This application can be done alone, or ina combination with other agricultural inputs such as fertilizers,biologicals, soil amendments, pesticides or even the seeds themselves.

When the row crops are vines, it may be desirable to plant thecarbonaceous particles deeper into the beds, such as the top 4-6″ of thebed, or alternatively mixing them in with backfill of individual vineholes. For existing vineyards, the method may include side dressing rowsof existing vines with such carbonaceous particles using a compostspreader and incorporating them into 4-12″ of the side of the bed byshanking or disking.

In all of the above methods, the porous carbonaceous particles appliedmay be treated or enhanced porous carbonaceous particles, which may betreated, for example, by infusing a liquid into the pores of theplurality of porous carbonaceous particles.

As demonstrated below, the biochar applied to trees, row crops and vinesby means of the present invention increases the retention of water andnutrients in the soil which is an enabler for superior soils rich withorganic matter and microbial life. The application results in visiblyfuller trees, crops and vines with improved vitality and longevity thatcan be maintained with less water and/or fertilizer.

Other devices, apparatus, systems, methods, features and advantages ofthe invention are or will become apparent to one with skill in the artupon examination of the following figures and detailed description. Itis intended that all such additional systems, methods, features andadvantages be included within this description, be within the scope ofthe invention, and be protected by the accompanying claims.

BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE FIGURES

The invention may be better understood by referring to the followingfigures. The components in the figures are not necessarily to scale,emphasis instead being placed upon illustrating the principles of theinvention.

FIG. 1 illustrates a cross-section of one example of a raw biocharparticle.

FIG. 2a is a SEM (10KV×3.00K 10.0 μm) of pore morphology of treatedbiochar made from pine.

FIG. 2b is a SEM (10KV×3.00K 10.0 μm) of pore morphology of treatedbiochar made from birch.

FIG. 2c is a SEM (10KV×3.00K 10.0 μm) of pore morphology of treatedbiochar made from coconut shells.

FIG. 3 is a chart showing porosity distribution of various biochars.

FIG. 4 is a flow chart process diagram of one implementation of aprocess for treating the raw biochar in accordance with the invention.

FIG. 4a illustrates a schematic of one example of an implementation of abiochar treat processes that that includes washing, pH adjustment andmoisture adjustment.

FIG. 4b illustrates yet another example of an implementation of abiochar treatment processing that includes inoculation.

FIG. 5 is a schematic flow diagram of one example of a treatment systemfor use in accordance with the present invention.

FIG. 6 is a chart showing the water holding capacities of treatedbiochar as compared to raw biochar and sandy clay loam soil and ascompared to raw biochar and soilless potting soil.

FIG. 7 illustrates the different water retention capacities of rawbiochar versus treated biochar measured gravimetrically.

FIG. 8 is a chart showing the plant available water of raw biocharcompared to treated biochar (wet and dry).

FIG. 9 is a chart showing the weight loss of treated biochars verses rawbiochar samples when heated at varying temperatures using a TGA testingmethod.

FIG. 10 is a flow diagram showing one example of a method for infusingbiochar.

FIG. 11 illustrates the improved liquid content of biochar using vacuumimpregnation as against soaking the biochar in liquid.

FIG. 12a is a chart comparing total retained water of treated biocharafter soaking and after vacuum impregnation.

FIG. 12b is a chart comparing water on the surface, interstitially andin the pores of biochar after soaking and after vacuum impregnation.

FIG. 13 illustrates how the amount of water or other liquid in the poresof vacuum processed biochars can be increased varied based upon theapplied pressure.

FIG. 14 illustrates the effects of NPK impregnation of biochar onlettuce yield.

FIG. 15 is a chart showing nitrate release curves of treated biocharsinfused with nitrate fertilizer.

FIG. 16 illustrates the application of biochar in connection with a newtree.

FIG. 17 illustrates the application of biochar to existing trees.

FIG. 18a illustrates a soil core sample taken nineteen weeks after sodinstallation where biochar was applied on top of the soil surface beforesod installation.

FIG. 18b illustrates a control soil core sample taken nineteen weeksafter sod installation where no biochar was applied prior to applyingthe turf to the soil.

FIG. 19 illustrates the application of biochar to row crops and vines.

DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE INVENTION

As illustrated in the attached figures, the present invention relates toa method for applying biochar to trees, row crops and vines to reducewater consumption by increasing overall water holding capacity of thesoil, as well as increase plant growth and their yield. As describedbelow, raw biochar may be treated to increase the water holding andretention capacities of the overall soil. Through treatment, theproperties of the raw biochar can be modified to significantly increasethe biochar's ability to retain water and/or nutrients while also, inmany cases, creating an environment beneficial to microorganisms. Theprocessing of the biochar can also ensure that the pH of biochar used inthe present application is suitable for creating soil conditionsbeneficial for tree, row crop and vine growth, which has been achallenge for raw biochars.

For purposes of this application, the term “biochar” shall be given itsbroadest possible meaning and shall include any solid materials obtainedfrom the pyrolysis, torrefaction, gasification or any other thermaland/or chemical conversion of a biomass, where the biochar contains atleast 55% carbon based upon weight. Pyrolysis is generally defined as athermochemical decomposition of organic material at elevatedtemperatures in the absence of, or with reduced levels of oxygen.

For purposes of this application, biochar may include, but not belimited to, BMF char disclosed and taught by U.S. Pat. No. 8,317,891,which is incorporated into this application by reference, and thosematerials falling within the IBI and AAPFCO definition of biochar. Whenthe biochar is referred to as “treated” or undergoes “treatment,” itshall mean raw, pyrolyzed biochar that has undergone additionalphysical, biological, and/or chemical processing.

As used herein, unless specified otherwise, the terms “carbonaceous”,“carbon based”, “carbon containing”, and similar such terms are to begiven their broadest possible meaning, and would include materialscontaining carbon in various states, crystallinities, forms andcompounds.

As used herein, unless stated otherwise, room temperature is 25° C. And,standard temperature and pressure is 25° C. and 1 atmosphere. Unlessstated otherwise, generally, the term “about” is meant to encompass avariance or range of ±10%, the experimental or instrument errorassociated with obtaining the stated value, and preferably the larger ofthese.

For the purposes of this application: (a) “tree” shall have the broadestpossible interpretation and apply to trees, shrubs, or other tree-likeplants, agricultural, ornamental or otherwise, that produce ediblefruit, nuts or seeds, make an area aesthetically more pleasing or moresuitable for outdoor activities, reduce soil erosion, or otherapplications; (b) “row crop” shall have the broadest possibleinterpretation and apply to any plant grown as a crop, whether in, on orabove ground; and (c) “vine” shall have the broadest possibleinterpretation and apply to vines producing fruit of any type orvariety, whether for direct consumption of the fruit itself (e.g. tablegrapes), fruit derivatives (e.g. jams or jellies) or for production ofbeverages (e.g. wine or grape juice).

A. Biochars

Typically, biochars include porous carbonaceous materials, such ascharcoal, that are used as soil amendments or other suitableapplications. Biochar most commonly is created by pyrolysis of abiomass. In addition to the benefits to plant growth, yield and quality,etc.; biochar provides the benefit of reducing carbon dioxide (CO₂) inthe atmosphere by serving as a method of carbon sequestration. Thus,biochar has the potential to help mitigate climate change, via carbonsequestration. However, to accomplish this important, yet ancillarybenefit, to any meaningful extent, the use of biochar in agriculturalapplications must become widely accepted, e.g., ubiquitous.Unfortunately, because of the prior failings in the biochar arts, thishas not occurred. It is believed that with the solutions of the presentinvention may this level of use of biochar be achieved; and moreimportantly, yet heretofore unobtainable, realize the benefit ofsignificant carbon sequestration.

In general, one advantage of putting biochar in soil includes long termcarbon sequestration. It is theorized that as worldwide carbon dioxideemissions continue to mount, benefits may be obtained by, controlling,mitigating and reducing the amount of carbon dioxide in the atmosphereand the oceans. It is further theorized that increased carbon dioxideemissions are associated with the increasing industrial development ofdeveloping nations, and are also associated with the increase in theworld's population. In addition to requiring more energy, the increasingworld population will require more food. Thus, rising carbon dioxideemissions can be viewed as linked to the increasing use of naturalresources by an ever increasing global population. As some suggest, thislarger population brings with it further demands on food productionrequirements. Biochar uniquely addresses both of these issues byproviding an effective carbon sink, e.g., carbon sequestration agent, aswell as, an agent for improving and increasing agricultural output. Inparticular, biochar is unique in its ability to increase agriculturalproduction, without increasing carbon dioxide emission, and preferablyreducing the amount of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere. However, asdiscussed above, this unique ability of biochar has not been realized,or seen, because of the inherent problems and failings of prior biocharsincluding, for example, high pH, phytotoxicity due to high metalscontent and/or residual organics, and dramatic product inconsistencies.

Biochar can be made from basically any source of carbon, for example,from hydrocarbons (e.g., petroleum based materials, coal, lignite, peat)and from a biomass (e.g., woods, hardwoods, softwoods, waste paper,coconut shell, manure, chaff, food waste, etc.). Combinations andvariations of these starting materials, and various and differentmembers of each group of starting materials can be, and are, used. Thus,the large number of vastly different starting materials leads tobiochars having different properties.

Many different pyrolysis or carbonization processes can be, and are usedto create biochars. In general, these processes involve heating thestarting material under positive pressure, reduced pressure, vacuum,inert atmosphere, or flowing inert atmosphere, through one or moreheating cycles where the temperature of the material is generallybrought above about 400° C., and can range from about 300° C. to about900° C. The percentage of residual carbon formed and several otherinitial properties are strong functions of the temperature and timehistory of the heating cycles. In general, the faster the heating rateand the higher the final temperature the lower the char yield.Conversely, in general, the slower the heating rate or the lower thefinal temperature the greater the char yield. The higher finaltemperatures also lead to modifying the char properties by changing theinorganic mineral matter compositions, in addition to surface organicchemistries, which in turn, modify the char properties. Ramp, or heatingrates, hold times, cooling profiles, pressures, flow rates, and type ofatmosphere can all be controlled, and typically are different from onebiochar supplier to the next. These differences potentially lead to abiochar having different properties, further framing the substantialnature of one of the problems that the present inventions address andsolve. Generally, in carbonization most of the non-carbon elements,hydrogen and oxygen are first removed in gaseous form by the pyrolyticdecomposition of the starting materials, e.g., the biomass. The freecarbon atoms group or arrange into crystallographic formations known aselementary graphite crystallites. Typically, at this point the mutualarrangement of the crystallite is irregular, so that free intersticesexist between them. Thus, pyrolysis involves thermal decomposition ofcarbonaceous material, e.g., the biomass, eliminating non-carbonspecies, and producing a fixed carbon structure.

As noted above, raw or untreated biochar is generally produced bysubjecting biomass to either a uniform or varying pyrolysis temperature(e.g., 300° C. to 550° C. to 750° C. or more) for a prescribed period oftime in a reduced oxygen environment. This process may either occurquickly, with high reactor temperature and short residence times, slowlywith lower reactor temperatures and longer residence times, or anywherein between. To achieve better results, the biomass from which the charis obtained may be first stripped of debris, such as bark, leaves andsmall branches, although this is not necessary. The biomass may furtherinclude feedstock to help adjust the pH, cationic and anionic exchangecapacity, hydrophilicity, and particle size distribution in theresulting raw biochar. In some applications, it is desirous to havebiomass that is fresh, less than six months old, and with an ash contentof less than 3%. Further, by using biochar derived from differentbiomass, e.g., pine, oak, hickory, birch and coconut shells fromdifferent regions, and understanding the starting properties of the rawbiochar, the treatment methods can be tailored to ultimately yield atreated biochar with predetermined, predictable physical and chemicalproperties. Additionally, the biomass may be treated with variousorganic or inorganic substances prior to pyrolysis to impact thereactivity of the material during pyrolysis and/or to potentially befixed in place and available for reaction with various substances duringthe treatment process after pyrolysis. Trace materials, usually ingaseous form, but potentially in other forms, may also be injectedduring the pyrolysis process with the intention of either modifying thecharacteristics of the raw biochar produced, or for potential situationon the raw biochar so that those materials, or a descendant materialcreated by thermal or chemical reaction during pyrolysis, may be reactedwith other compounds during the treatment process.

In general, biochar particles can have a very wide variety of particlesizes and distributions, usually reflecting the sizes occurring in theinput biomass. Additionally, biochar can be ground, sieved, strained, orcrushed after pyrolysis to further modify the particle sizes.

Typically, for agricultural uses, biochars with consistent, predictableparticle sizes are more desirable. By way of example, the biocharparticles can have particle sizes as shown or measured in Table 1 below.When referring to a batch having ¼ inch particles, the batch would haveparticles that will pass through a 3 mesh sieve, but will not passthrough (i.e., are caught by or sit atop) a 4 mesh sieve.

TABLE 1 U.S. Mesh Microns Millimeters (i.e., mesh) Inches (μm) (mm) 30.2650 6730 6.370 4 0.1870 4760 4.760 5 0.1570 4000 4.000 6 0.1320 33603.360 7 0.1110 2830 2.830 8 0.0937 2380 2.380 10 0.0787 2000 2.000 120.0661 1680 1.680 14 0.0555 1410 1.410 16 0.0469 1190 1.190 18 0.03941000 1.000 20 0.0331 841 0.841 25 0.0280 707 0.707 30 0.0232 595 0.59535 0.0197 500 0.500 40 0.0165 400 0.400 45 0.0138 354 0.354 50 0.0117297 0.297 60 0.0098 250 0.250 70 0.0083 210 0.210 80 0.0070 177 0.177100 0.0059 149 0.149 120 0.0049 125 0.125 140 0.0041 105 0.105 1700.0035 88 0.088 200 0.0029 74 0.074 230 0.0024 63 0.063 270 0.0021 530.053 325 0.0017 44 0.044 400 0.0015 37 0.037

For most basic agricultural applications, it is desirable to use biocharparticles having particle sizes from about 3/4 mesh to about 60/70 mesh,about 4/5 mesh to about 20/25 mesh, or about 4/5 mesh to about 30/35mesh. However, for applications such as seed treatment, or microbialcarriers, smaller mesh sizes ranging from 200, to 270, to 325, to 400mesh or beyond may be desirable. It is understood that the desired meshsize, and mesh size distribution can vary depending upon a particularapplication for which the biochar is intended.

FIG. 1 illustrates a cross-section of one example of a raw biocharparticle. As illustrated in FIG. 1, a biochar particle 100 is a porousstructure that has an outer surface 100 a and a pore structure 101formed within the biochar particle 100. As used herein, unless specifiedotherwise, the terms “porosity”, “porous”, “porous structure”, and“porous morphology” and similar such terms are to be given theirbroadest possible meaning, and would include materials having openpores, closed pores, and combinations of open and closed pores, andwould also include macropores, mesopores, and micropores andcombinations, variations and continuums of these morphologies. Unlessspecified otherwise, the term “pore volume” is the total volume occupiedby the pores in a particle or collection of particles; the term“inter-particle void volume” is the volume that exists between acollection of particle; the term “solid volume or volume of solid means”is the volume occupied by the solid material and does not include anyfree volume that may be associated with the pore or inter-particle voidvolumes; and the term “bulk volume” is the apparent volume of thematerial including the particle volume, the inter-particle void volume,and the internal pore volume.

The pore structure 101 forms an opening 121 in the outer surface 100 aof the biochar particle 100. The pore structure 101 has a macropore 102,which has a macropore surface 102 a, and which surface 102 a has anarea, i.e., the macropore surface area. (In this diagram only a singlemicropore is shown. If multiple micropores are present than the sum oftheir surface areas would equal the total macropore surface area for thebiochar particle.) From the macropore 102, several mesopores 105, 106,107, 108 and 109 are present, each having its respective surfaces 105 a,106 a, 107 a, 108 a and 109 a. Thus, each mesopore has its respectivesurface area; and the sum of all mesopore surface areas would be thetotal mesopore surface area for the particle. From the mesopores, e.g.,107, there are several micropores 110, 111, 112, 113, 114, 115, 116,117, 118, 119 and 120, each having its respective surfaces 110 a, 111 a,112 a, 113 a, 114 a, 115 a, 116 a, 117 a, 118 a, 119 a and 120 a. Thus,each micropore has its respective surface area and the sum of allmicropore surface areas would be the total micropore surface area forthe particle. The sum of the macropore surface area, the mesoporesurface area and the micropore surface area would be the total poresurface area for the particle.

Macropores are typically defined as pores having a diameter greater than300 nm, mesopores are typically defined as diameter from about 1-300 nm,and micropores are typically defined as diameter of less than about 1nm, and combinations, variations and continuums of these morphologies.The macropores each have a macropore volume, and the sum of thesevolumes would be the total macropore volume. The mesopores each have amesopore volume, and the sum of these volumes would be the totalmesopore volume. The micropores each have a micropore volume, and thesum of these volumes would be the total micropore volume. The sum of themacropore volume, the mesopore volume and the micropore volume would bethe total pore volume for the particle.

Additionally, the total pore surface area, volume, mesopore volume,etc., for a batch of biochar would be the actual, estimated, andpreferably calculated sum of all of the individual properties for eachbiochar particle in the batch.

It should be understood that the pore morphology in a biochar particlemay have several of the pore structures shown, it may have mesoporesopening to the particle surface, it may have micropores opening toparticle surface, it may have micropores opening to macropore surfaces,or other combinations or variations of interrelationship and structurebetween the pores. It should further be understood that the poremorphology may be a continuum, where moving inwardly along the pore fromthe surface of the particle, the pore transitions, e.g., its diameterbecomes smaller, from a macropore, to a mesopore, to a micropore, e.g.,macropore 102 to mesopore 109 to micropore 114.

In general, most biochars have porosities that can range from 0.2cm³/cm³ to about 0.8 cm³/cm³ and more preferably about 0.2 cm³/cm³ toabout 0.5 cm³/cm³ (Unless stated otherwise, porosity is provided as theratio of the total pore volumes (the sum of the micro+meso+macro porevolumes) to the solid volume of the biochar. Porosity of the biocharparticles can be determined, or measured, by measuring the micro-,meso-, and macro pore volumes, the bulk volume, and the inter particlevolumes to determine the solid volume by difference. The porosity isthen calculated from the total pore volume and the solid volume.

As noted above, the use of different biomass potentially leads tobiochars having different properties, including, but not limited todifferent pore structures. By way of example, FIGS. 2A, 2B and 2Cillustrate Scanning Electron Microscope (“SEM”) images of various typesof treated biochars showing the different nature of their poremorphology. FIG. 2A is biochar derived from pine. FIG. 2B is biocharderived from birch. FIG. 2C is biochar derived from coconut shells.

The surface area and pore volume for each type of pore, e.g., macro-,meso- and micro-can be determined by direct measurement using CO₂adsorption for micro-, N₂ adsorption for meso- and macro pores andstandard analytical surface area analyzers and methods, for example,particle analyzers such as Micrometrics instruments for meso- and micropores and impregnation capacity for macro pore volume. Mercuryporosimetry, which measures the macroporosity by applying pressure to asample immersed in mercury at a pressure calibrated for the minimum porediameter to be measured, may also be used to measure pore volume.

The total micropore volume can be from about 2% to about 25% of thetotal pore volume. The total mesopore volume can be from about 4% toabout 35% of the total pore volume. The total macropore volume can befrom about 40% to about 95% of the total pore volume. By way of example,FIG. 3 shows a bar chart setting out examples of the pore volumes forsample biochars made from peach pits 201, juniper wood 202, a first hardwood 203, a second hard wood 204, fir and pine waste wood 205, a firstpine 206, a second pine 207, birch 208 and coconut shells 209.

As explained further below, treatment can increase usable pore volumesand, among other things, remove obstructions in the pores, which leadsto increased retention properties and promotes further performancecharacteristics of the biochar. Knowing the properties of the startingraw biochar, one can treat the biochar to produce controlled,predictable and optimal resulting physical and chemical properties.

B. Treatment

The rationale for treating the biochar after pyrolysis is that given thelarge internal pore volume and large interior surface are of thebiochars, it is most efficient to make significant changes in thephysical and chemical properties of the biochar by treating both theinternal and external surfaces and internal pore volume of the char.Testing has demonstrated that if the biochar is treated, at leastpartially, in a manner that causes the forced infusion and/or diffusionof liquids and/or vapors into and/or out of the biochar pores (throughmechanical, physical, or chemical means), certain properties of thebiochar can be altered or improved over and above simply contactingthese liquids with the biochar. By knowing the properties of the rawbiochar and the optimal desired properties of the treated biochar, theraw biochar can then be treated in a manner that results in the treatedbiochar having controlled optimized properties.

For purposes of this application, treating and/or washing the biochar inaccordance with the present invention involves more than simplycontacting, washing or soaking, which generally only impacts theexterior surfaces and a small percentage of the interior surface area.“Washing” or “treating” in accordance with the present invention, and asused below, involves treatment of the biochar in a manner that causesthe forced, accelerated or assisted infusion and/or diffusion ofliquids, vapors, and/or additivities into and/or out of the biocharpores (through mechanical, physical, biological, or chemical means) suchthat certain properties of the biochar can be altered or improved overand above simply contacting these liquids with the biochar or so thattreatment becomes more efficient or rapid from a time standpoint oversimple contact or immersion.

In particular, effective treatment processes can mitigate deleteriouspore surface properties, remove undesirable substances from poresurfaces or volume, and impact anywhere from between 10% to 99% or moreof pore surface area of a biochar particle. By modifying the usable poresurfaces through treatment and/or removing deleterious substances fromthe pore volume, the treated biochars can exhibit a greater capacity toretain water and/or other nutrients as well as being more suitablehabitats for some forms of microbial life. Through the use of treatedbiochars, agricultural applications can realize increased moisturecontrol, increased nutrient retention, reduced water usage, reducedwater requirements, reduced runoff or leaching, increased nutrientefficiency, reduced nutrient usage, increased yields, increased yieldswith lower water requirements and/or nutrient requirements, increases inbeneficial microbial life, improved performance and/or shelf life forinoculated bacteria, increased efficacy as a substrate for microbialgrowth or fermentation, and any combination and variation of these andother benefits.

Treatment further allows the biochar to be modified to possess certainknown properties that enhance the benefits received from the use ofbiochar. While the selection of feedstock, raw biochar and/or pyrolysisconditions under which the biochar was manufactured can make treatmentprocesses less cumbersome, more efficient and further controlled,treatment processes can be utilized that provide for the biochar to havedesired and generally sustainable resulting properties regardless of thebiochar source or pyrolysis conditions. As explained further below,treatment can (i) repurpose problematic biochars, (ii) handle changingbiochar material sources, e.g., seasonal and regional changes in thesource of biomass, (iii) provide for custom features and functions ofbiochar for particular soils, regions or agricultural purposes; (iv)increase the retention properties of biochar, (v) provide for largevolumes of biochar having desired and predictable properties, (vi)provide for biochar having custom properties, (vii) handle differencesin biochar caused by variations in pyrolysis conditions or manufacturingof the “raw” biochar; and (viii) address the majority, if not all, ofthe problems that have, prior to the present invention, stifled thelarge scale adoption and use of biochars.

Treatment can impact both the interior and exterior pore surfaces,remove harmful chemicals, introduce beneficial substances, and altercertain properties of the biochar and the pore surfaces and volumes.This is in stark contrast to simple washing, contact, or immersion whichgenerally only impacts the exterior surfaces and a small percentage ofthe interior surface area. Treatment can further be used to coatsubstantially all of the biochar pore surfaces with a surface modifyingagent or impregnate the pore volume with additives or treatment toprovide a predetermined feature to the biochar, e.g., surface charge andcharge density, surface species and distribution, targeted nutrientaddition, magnetic modifications, root growth facilitator, and waterabsorptivity and water retention properties. Just as importantly,treatment can also be used to remove undesirable substances from thebiochar, such as dioxins or other toxins either through physical removalor through chemical reactions causing neutralization.

FIG. 4 is a schematic flow diagram of one example treatment process 400for use in accordance with the present invention. As illustrated, thetreatment process 400 starts with raw biochar 402 that may be subjectedto one or more reactors or treatment processes prior to bagging 420 thetreated biochar for resale. For example, 404 represents reactor 1, whichmay be used to treat the biochar. The treatment may be a simple waterwash or may be an acid wash used for the purpose of altering the pH ofthe raw biochar particles 402. The treatment may also contain asurfactant or detergent to aid the penetration of the treatment solutioninto the pores of the biochar. The treatment may optionally be heated,cooled, or may be used at ambient temperature or any combination of thethree. For some applications, depending upon the properties of the rawbiochar, a water and/or acid/alkaline wash 404 (the latter for pHadjustment) may be the only necessary treatment prior to bagging thebiochar 420. If, however, the moisture content of the biochar needs tobe adjusted, the treated biochar may then be put into a second reactor406 for purposes of reducing the moisture content in the washed biochar.From there, the treated and moisture adjusted biochar may be bagged 420.

Again, depending upon the starting characteristics of the raw biocharand the intended application for the resale product, further processingmay still be needed or desired. In this case, the treated moistureadjusted biochar may then be passed to a third reactor 408 forinoculation, which may include the impregnation of biochar withbeneficial additives, such as nutrients, bacteria, microbes, fertilizersor other additives. Thereafter, the inoculated biochar may be bagged420, or may be yet further processed, for example, in a fourth reactor410 to have further moisture removed from or added to the biochar.Further moisture adjustment may be accomplished by placing theinoculated biochar in a fourth moisture adjustment reactor 410 orcirculating the biochar back to a previous moisture adjustment reactor(e.g. reactor 406). Those skilled in the art will recognize that theordering in which the raw biochar is processed and certain processes maybe left out, depending on the properties of the starting raw biochar andthe desired application for the biochar. For example, the treatment andinoculation processes may be performed without the moisture adjustmentstep, inoculation processes may also be performed with or without anytreatment, pH adjustment or any moisture adjustment. All the processesmay be completed alone or in the conjunction with one or more of theothers. It should also be noted that microbes themselves may be part ofthe process, not simply as an inoculant, but as an agent to conveymaterials into or out of the pore volume of the biochar.

For example, FIG. 4a illustrates a schematic of one example of animplementation of biochar processing that includes washing the pores andboth pH and moisture adjustment. FIG. 4b illustrates yet another exampleof an implementation of biochar processing that includes inoculation.

As illustrated in FIG. 4a , raw biochar 402 is placed into a reactor ortank 404. A washing or treatment liquid 403 is then added to a tank anda partial vacuum, using a vacuum pump, 405 is pulled on the tank. Thetreating or washing liquid 403 may be used to clean or wash the pores ofthe biochar 402 or adjust the chemical or physical properties of thesurface area or pore volume, such as pH level, usable pore volume, orVOC content, among other things. The vacuum can be applied after thetreatment liquid 403 is added or while the treatment liquid 403 isadded. Thereafter, the washed/adjusted biochar 410 may be moistureadjusted by vacuum exfiltration 406 to pull the extra liquid from thewashed/moisture adjusted biochar 410 or may be placed in a centrifuge407, heated or subjected to pressure gradient changes (e.g., blowingair) for moisture adjustment. The moisture adjusted biochar 412 may thenbe bagged or subject to further treatment. Any excess liquids 415collected from the moisture adjustment step may be disposed of orrecycled, as desired. Optionally, biochar fines may be collected fromthe excess liquids 415 for further processing, for example, to create aslurry, cakes, or biochar extrudates. It should be noted that in any ofthese steps, the residual gaseous environment in the tanks orcentrifuges may be either ambient air, or a prescribed gas orcombination of gasses to impact (through assistance or attenuation)reactivity during the process.

Optionally, rather than using a vacuum pump 405, a positive pressurepump may be used to apply positive pressure to the tank 404. In somesituations, applying positive pressure to the tank may also function toforce or accelerate the washing or treating liquid 403 into the pores ofthe biochar 402. Any change in pressure in the tank 404 or across thesurface of the biochar could facilitate the exchange of gas and/ormoisture into and out of the pores of the biochar with the washing ortreating liquid 403 in the tank. Accordingly, changing the pressure inthe tank and across the surface of the biochar, whether positive ornegative, is within the scope of this invention. The atmosphere of thetank may be air or other gaseous mixture, prior to the intuition of thepressure change.

As illustrated FIG. 4b , the washed/adjusted biochar 410 or thewashed/adjusted and moisture adjusted biochar 412 may be further treatedby inoculating or impregnating the pores of the biochar with an additive425. The biochar 410, 412 placed back in a reactor 401, an additivesolution 425 is placed in the reactor 401 and a vacuum, using a vacuumpump, 405 is applied to the tank. Again, the vacuum can be applied afterthe additive solution 425 is added to the tank or while the additivesolution 425 is being added to the tank. Thereafter, the washed,adjusted and inoculated biochar 428 can be bagged. Alternatively, iffurther moisture adjustment is required, the biochar can be furthermoisture adjusted by vacuum filtration 406 to pull the extra liquid fromthe washed/moisture adjusted biochar 410 or may be placed in acentrifuge 407 for moisture adjustment. The resulting biochar 430 canthen be bagged. Any excess liquids 415 collected from the moistureadjustment step may be disposed of or recycled, as desired. Optionally,biochar particulates or “fines” which easily are suspended in liquid maybe collected from the excess liquids 415 for further processing, forexample, to create a slurry, biochar extrudates, or merely a biocharproduct of a consistently smaller particle size. As described above,both processes of the FIGS. 4a and 4b can be performed with a surfactantsolution in place of, or in conjunction with, the vacuum 405.

While known processes exist for the above described processes, researchassociated with the present invention has shown improvement and theability to better control the properties and characteristics of thebiochar if the processes are performed through the infusion anddiffusion of liquids into and out of the biochar pores. One suchtreatment process that can be used is vacuum impregnation and vacuumand/or centrifuge extraction. Another such treatment process that can beused is the addition of a surfactant to infused liquid, which infusedliquid may be optionally heated, cooled, or used at ambient temperatureor any combination of the three.

Since research associated with the present invention has identified whatphysical and chemical properties have the highest impact on plant growthand/or soil health, the treatment process can be geared to treatdifferent forms of raw biochar to achieve treated biochar propertiesknown to enhance these characteristics. For example, if the pH of thebiochar needs to be adjusted to enhance the raw biochar performanceproperties, the treatment may be the infusion of an acid solution intothe pores of the biochar using vacuum, surfactant, or other treatmentmeans. This treatment of pore infusion through, for example, the rapid,forced infusion of liquid into and out the pores of the biochar, hasfurther been proven to sustain the adjusted pH levels of the treatedbiochar for much longer periods than biochar that is simply immersed inan acid solution for the same period of time. By way of another example,if the moisture content needs to be adjusted, then excess liquid andother selected substances (e.g. chlorides, dioxins, and other chemicals,to include those previously deposited by treatment to catalyze orotherwise react with substances on the interior or exterior surfaces ofthe biochar) can be extracted from the pores using vacuum and/orcentrifuge extraction or by using various heating techniques. The abovedescribes a few examples of treatment that result in treated biocharhaving desired performance properties identified to enhance soil healthand plant life or other applications.

FIG. 5 illustrates one example of a system 500 that utilizes vacuumimpregnation to treat raw biochar. Generally, raw biochar particles, andpreferably a batch of biochar particles, are placed in a reactor, whichis connected to a vacuum pump, and a source of treating liquid (i.e.water or acidic/basis solution). When the valve to the reactor isclosed, the pressure in the reactor is reduced to values ranging from750 Torr to 400 Torr to 10 Torr or less. The biochar is maintained undervacuum (“vacuum hold time”) for anywhere from seconds to 1 minute to 10minutes, to 100 minutes, or possibly longer. By way of example, forabout a 500 pound batch of untreated biochar, a vacuum hold time of fromabout 1 to about 5 minutes can be used if the reactor is of sufficientsize and sufficient infiltrate is available to adjust the necessaryproperties. While under the vacuum the treating liquid may then beintroduced into the vacuum chamber containing the biochar.Alternatively, the treating liquid may be introduced into the vacuumchamber before the biochar is placed under a vacuum. Optionally,treatment may also include subjecting the biochar to elevatedtemperatures from ambient to about 250° C. or reduced temperatures toabout −25° C. or below, with the limiting factor being the temperatureand time at which the infiltrate can remain flowable as a liquid orsemi-liquid.

The infiltrate or treating liquid is drawn into the biochar pore, andpreferably drawn into the macropores and mesopores. Depending upon thespecific doses applied and pore structure of the biochar, the infiltratecan coat anywhere from 10% to 50% to 100% of the total macropore andmesopore surface area and can fill or coat anywhere from a portion tonearly all (10% -100%) of the total macropore and mesopore volume.

As described above, the treating liquid can be left in the biochar, withthe batch being a treated biochar batch ready for packaging, shipmentand use in an agricultural or other application. The treating liquid mayalso be removed through drying, treatment with heated gases, subsequentvacuum processing, centrifugal force (e.g., cyclone drying machines orcentrifuges), dilution, or treatment with other liquids, with the batchbeing a treated biochar batch ready for packaging, shipment and use inan agricultural application. A second, third or more infiltration,removal, infiltration and removal, and combinations and variations ofthese may also be performed on the biochar with optional drying stepsbetween infiltrations to remove residual liquid from and reintroducegasses to the pore structure if needed. In any of these stages theliquid may contain organic or inorganic surfactants to assist with thepenetration of the treating liquid.

As illustrated in FIG. 5, a system 500 for providing a biochar,preferably having predetermined and generally uniform properties. Thesystem 500 has a vacuum infiltration tank 501. The vacuum infiltrationtank 501 has an inlet line 503 that has a valve 504 that seals the inletline 503. In operation, the starting biochar is added to vacuuminfiltration tank 501 as shown by arrow 540. Once the tank is filledwith the starting biochar, a vacuum is applied to the tank, by a vacuumpump connected to vacuum line 506, which also has valve 507. Thestarting biochar is held in the vacuum for a vacuum hold time.Infiltrate, as shown by arrow 548 is added to the tank 501 by line 508having valve 509. The infiltrate is mixed with the biochar in the tank501 by agitator 502. The mixing process is done under vacuum for aperiod of time sufficient to have the infiltrate fill the desired amountof pore volume, e.g., up to 100% of the macropores and mesopores.

Alternatively, the infiltrate may be added to the vacuum infiltrationtank 501 before vacuum is pulled on the tank. Optionally, one or moreselected gasses may be added to the tank. In this manner, infiltrate isadded in the tank in an amount that can be impregnated into the biocharand optionally, the gasses introduced can also potentially impact thereactivity of the liquid as well as any organic or inorganic substanceson the surface or in the pore volume of the biochar. As the vacuum isapplied, the biochar is circulated in the tank to cause the infiltrateto fill the pore volume. To one skilled in the art, it should be clearthat the agitation of the biochar during this process can be performedthrough various means, such as a rotating tank, rotating agitator,pressure variation in the tank itself, or other means. Additionally, thebiochar may be dried using conventional means before even the firsttreatment. This optional pre-drying can remove liquid from the pores andin some situations may increase the efficiency of impregnation due topressure changes in the tank.

Pressure is then restored in the tank 501 with either ambient air or aprescribed selection of gasses, and the infiltrated biochar is removed,as shown by arrow 541, from the tank 501 to bin 512, by way of a sealinggate 511 and removal line 510. The infiltrated biochar is collected inbin 512, where it can be further processed in several different ways.The infiltrated biochar can be shipped for use as a treated biochar asshown by arrow 543. The infiltrated biochar can be returned to the tank501 (or a second infiltration tank). If returned to the tank 501 thebiochar can be processed with a second infiltration step, a vacuumdrying step, a washing step, or combinations and variations of these.The infiltrated biochar can be moved by conveyor 514, as shown by arrow542, to a drying apparatus 516, e.g., a centrifugal dryer or heater,where water, infiltrate or other liquid is removed by way of line 517,and the dried biochar leaves the dryer through discharge line 518 asshown by arrow 545, and is collected in bin 519. The biochar is removedfrom the bin by discharge 520. The biochar may be shipped as a treatedbiochar for use in an agriculture application, as shown by arrow 547.The biochar may also be further processed, as shown by 546. Thus, thebiochar could be returned to tank 501 (or a second vacuum infiltrationtank) for a further infiltration step. The drying step may be repeatedeither by returning the dry biochar to the drying apparatus 516, or byrunning the biochar through a series of drying apparatus, until thepredetermined dryness of the biochar is obtained, e.g., between 50% toless than 1% moisture.

The system 500 is illustrative of the system, equipment and processesthat can be used for, and to carry out the present inventions. Variousother implementations and types of equipment can be used. The vacuuminfiltration tank can be a sealable off-axis rotating vessel, chamber ortank. It can have an internal agitator that also when reversed can movematerial out, empty it, (e.g., a vessel along the lines of a largecement truck, or ready mix truck, that can mix and move material out ofthe tank, without requiring the tank's orientation to be changed).Washing equipment may be added or utilized at various points in theprocess, or may be carried out in the vacuum tank, or drier, (e.g., washfluid added to biochar as it is placed into the drier for removal).Other steps, such as bagging, weighing, the mixing of the biochar withother materials, e.g., fertilized, peat, soil, etc. can be carried out.In all areas of the system referring to vacuum infiltration, optionallypositive pressure can be applied, if needed, to enhance the penetrationof the infiltrate or to assist with re-infusion of gaseous vapors intothe treated char. Additionally, where feasible, especially in positivepressure environments, the infiltrate may have soluble gasses addedwhich then can assist with removal of liquid from the pores, or gaseoustreatment of the pores upon equalization of pressure.

As noted above, the biochar may also be treated using a surfactant. Thesame or similar equipment used in the vacuum infiltration process can beused in the surfactant treatment process. Although it is not necessaryto apply a vacuum in the surfactant treatment process, the vacuuminfiltration tank or any other rotating vessel, chamber or tank can beused. In the surfactant treatment process, a surfactant, such as yuccaextract, is added to the infiltrate, e.g., acid wash or water. Thequantity of the surfactant added to the infiltrate may vary dependingupon the surfactant used. For example, organic yucca extract can beadded at a rate of between 0.1-20%, but more preferably 1-5% by volumeof the infiltrate. The infiltrate with surfactant is then mixed with thebiochar in a tumbler for several minutes, e.g., 3-5 minutes, withoutapplied vacuum. Optionally, a vacuum or positive pressure may be appliedwith the surfactant to improve efficiency and penetration, but is notstrictly necessary. Additionally, infiltrate to which the surfactant ordetergent is added may be heated or may be ambient temperature or less.Similarly, the mixture of the surfactant or detergent, as well as thechar being treated may be heated, or may be ambient temperature, orless. After tumbling, excess free liquid can be removed in the samemanner as described above in connection with the vacuum infiltrationprocess. Drying, also as described above in connection with the vacuuminfiltration process, is an optional additional step. Besides yuccaextract, a number of other surfactants may be used for surfactanttreatment, which include, but are not limited to, the following:nonionic types, such as, ethoxylated alcohols, phenols—lauryl alcoholethoxylates, Fatty acid esters—sorbitan, tween 20, amines,amides—imidazoles; anionic types, such as sulfonates—arylalkylsulfonates and sulfate—sodium dodecyl sulfate; cationic types, such asalkyl—amines or ammoniums-quaternary ammoniums; and amphoteric types,such as betaines—cocamidopropyl betaine. Additionally biosurfactants, ormicrobes which produce biosurfactants such as Flavobacterium sp. mayalso be used.

Optionally, the biochar may also be treated by applying ultrasonics. Inthis treatment process, the biochar may be contacted with a treatingliquid that is agitated by ultrasonic waves. By agitating the treatingliquid, contaminants may be dislodged or removed from the biochar due tobulk motion of the fluid in and around the biocarbon, pressure changes,including cavitation in and around contaminants on the surface, as wellas pressure changes in or near pore openings (cavitation bubbles) andinternal pore cavitation.

In this manner, agitation will cause contaminants of many forms to bereleased from the internal and external structure of the biochar. Theagitation also encourages the exchange of water, gas, and other liquidswith the internal biochar structure. Contaminants are transported fromthe internal structure to the bulk liquid (treating fluid) resulting inbiochar with improved physical and chemical properties. Theeffectiveness of ultrasonic cleaning is tunable as bubble size andnumber is a function of frequency and power delivered by the transducerto the treating fluid

In one example, applying ultrasonic treatment, raw wood based biocharbetween 10 microns to 10 mm with moisture content from 0% to 90% may bemixed with a dilute mixture of acid and water (together the treatingliquid) in a processing vessel that also translates the slurry (thebiochar/treating liquid mixture). During translation, the slurry passesnear an ultrasonic transducer to enhance the interaction between thefluid and biochar. The biochar may experience one or multiple washes ofdilute acid, water, or other treating fluids. The biochar may also makemultiple passes by ultrasonic transducers to enhance physical andchemical properties of the biochar. For example, once a large volume ofslurry is made, it can continuously pass an ultrasonic device and bedegassed and wetted to its maximum, at a rapid processing rate. Theslurry can also undergo a separation process in which the fluid andsolid biochar are separated at 60% effectiveness or greater.

Through ultrasonic treatment, the pH of the biochar, or other physicaland chemical properties may be adjusted and the mesopore and macroporesurfaces of the biochar may be cleaned and enhanced. Further, ultrasonictreatment can be used in combination with bulk mixing with water,solvents, additives (fertilizers, etc.), and other liquid basedchemicals to enhance the properties of the biochar. After treatment, thebiochar may be subject to moisture adjustment, further treatment and/orinoculation using any of the methods set forth above. In certainapplications, ultrasonic technology may also be used to modify (usuallyreduce) the size of the biochar particles while retaining much, most, ornearly all of the porosity and pore structure. This yields smaller sizeparticles with different morphologies than other methods of sizing suchas grinding, crushing, sieving, or shaking.

C. Impact of Treatment

As illustrated above, the treatment process, whether using pressurechanges (e.g. vacuum), surfactant or ultrasonic treatment, or acombination thereof, may include two steps, which in certainapplications, may be combined: (i) washing and (ii) inoculation of thepores with an additive. When the desired additive is the same and thatbeing inoculated into the pores, e.g., water, the step of washing thepores and inoculating the pores with an additive may be combined.

While not exclusive, washing is generally done for one of threepurposes: (i) to modify the surface of the pore structure of the biochar(i.e., to allow for increased retention of liquids); (ii) to modify thepH of the biochar; and/or (iii) to remove undesired and potentiallyharmful compounds or gases.

Testing has further demonstrated that if the biochar is treated, atleast partially, in a manner that causes the infusion and/or effusion ofliquids and/or vapors into and/or out of the biochar pores (throughmechanical, physical, biological, or chemical means), certain beneficialproperties of the biochar can be altered, enhanced or improved throughtreatment. By knowing the properties of the raw biochar and the optimaldesired properties of the treated biochar, the raw biochar can then betreated in a manner that results in the treated biochar havingcontrolled optimized properties and greater levels of consistencybetween batches as well as between treated biochars arising from variousfeedstocks.

Using the treatment processes described above, or other treatments thatprovide, in part, for the infusion and/or effusion of liquids and/orvapors into and/or out of the biochar pores, biochars can have improvedphysical and chemical properties over raw biochar.

1. Water Holding/Retention Capacity

As demonstrated below, the treatment processes of the invention modifythe surfaces of the pore structure to provide enhanced functionality andto control the properties of the biochar to achieve consistent andpredicable performance. Using the above treatment processes, anywherefrom at least 10% of the total pore surface area up to 90% or more ofthe total pore surface area may be modified. In some implementations, itmay be possible to achieve modification of up to 99% or more of thetotal pore surface area of the biochar particle. Using the processes setforth above, such modification may be substantially and uniformlyachieved for an entire batch of treated biochar.

For example, it is believed that by treating the biochar as set forthabove, the hydrophilicity of the surface of the pores of the biochar ismodified, allowing for a greater water retention capacity, as well as,perhaps more importantly, more effective association of water lovingbiology (such as plant root tissue and other microbial life) with thematerial. Further, by treating the biochars as set forth above, gasesand other substances are also removed from the pores of the biocharparticles, also contributing to the biochar particles' increased waterholding capacity. Thus, the ability of the biochar to retain liquids,whether water or additives in solution, is increased, which alsoincreases the ability to load the biochar particles with large volumesof inoculant, infiltrates and/or additives.

A batch of biochar has a bulk density, which is defined as weight ingrams (g) per cm³ of loosely poured material that has or retains somefree space between the particles. The biochar particles in this batchwill also have a solid density, which is the weight in grams (g) per cm³of just particles, i.e., with the free space between the particlesremoved. The solid density includes the air space or free space that iscontained within the pores, but not the free space between particles.The actual density of the particles is the density of the material ingrams (g) per cm³ of material, which makes up the biochar particles,i.e., the solid material with pore volume removed.

In general, as bulk density increases the pore volume would be expectedto decrease and, if the pore volume is macro or mesoporous, with it, theability of the material to hold infiltrate, e.g., inoculant. Thus, withthe infiltration processes, the treated biochars can have impregnationcapacities that are larger than could be obtained without infiltration,e.g., the treated biochars can readily have 10%, 30%, 40%, 50%, or mostpreferably, 60%-100% of their total pore volume filled with aninfiltrate, e.g., an inoculant. The impregnation capacity is the amountof a liquid that a biochar particle, or batch of particles, can absorb.The ability to make the pores surface hydrophilic, and to infuse liquiddeep into the pore structure through the application of positive ornegative pressure and/or a surfactant, alone or in combination, providesthe ability to obtain these high impregnation capabilities. The treatedbiochars can have impregnation capacities, i.e., the amount ofinfiltrate that a particle can hold on a volume held/total volume of aparticle basis, that is greater than 0.2 cm³/cm³ to 0.8 cm³/cm³.

Accordingly, by using the treatment above, the water retention capacityof biochar can be greatly increased over the water retention capacitiesof various soil types and even raw biochar, thereby holding water and/ornutrients in the plant's root zone longer and ultimately reducing theamount of applied water (through irrigation, rainfall, or other means)needed by up to 50% or more. FIG. 6 has two charts showing the waterretention capacities of planting substrates versus when mixed with rawand treated biochar. In this example, the raw and treated biochar arederived from coconut biomass. The soils sampled are loam and sandy claysoil and a common commercial horticultural peat and perlite soillesspotting mix. The charts show the retained water as a function of time.

In chart A of FIG. 6, the bottom line represents the retained water inthe sandy claim loam soil over time. The middle line represents theretained water in the sandy clay soil with 20% by volume percent ofunprocessed raw biochar. The top line represents the retained water inthe sandy clay loam soil with 20% by volume percent of treated biochar(adjusted and inoculated biochar). Chart B of FIG. 6 represents the sameusing peat and perlite soilless potting mix rather than sandy clay loamsoil.

As illustrated in FIG. 7 the treated biochar has an increased waterretention capacity over raw biochar of approximately 1.5 times the rawbiochar. Similarly, testing of treated biochar derived from pine havealso shown an approximate 1.5 times increase in water retention capacityover raw biochar. With certain biochar, the water retention capacity oftreated biochar could be as great as three time that of raw biochar.

“Water holding capacity,” which may also be referred to as “WaterRetention Capacity,” is the amount of water that can be held bothinternally within the porous structure and in the interparticle voidspaces in a given batch of particles. While a summary of the method ofmeasure is provided above, a more specific method of measuring waterholding capacity/water retention capacity is measured by the followingprocedure: (i) drying a sample of material under temperatures of 105° C.for a period of 24 hours or using another scientifically acceptabletechnique to reduce the moisture content of the material to less than2%, less than 1%; and preferably less than 0.5% (ii) placing a measuredamount of dry material in a container; (iii) filling the containerhaving the measured amount of material with water such that the materialis completely immersed in the water; (iv) letting the water remain inthe container having the measured amount of material for at least tenminutes or treating the material in accordance with the invention byinfusing with water when the material is a treated biochar; (v) drainingthe water from the container until the water ceases to drain; (vi)weighing the material in the container (i.e., wet weight); (vii) againdrying the material by heating it under temperatures of 105° C. for aperiod of 24 hours or using another scientifically acceptable techniqueto reduce the moisture content of the material to less than 2% andpreferably less than 1%; and (viii) weighing the dry material again(i.e., dry weight) and, for purposes of a volumetric measure,determining the volume of the material.

Measured gravimetrically, the water holding/water retention capacity isdetermined by measuring the difference in weight of the material fromstep (vi) to step (viii) over the weight of the material from step(viii) (i.e., wet weight-dry weight/dry weight). FIG. 7 illustrates thedifferent water retention capacities of raw biochar versus treatedbiochar measured gravimetrically. As illustrated, water retentioncapacity of raw biochar can be less than 200%, whereas treated biocharcan have water retention capacities measured gravimetrically greaterthan 100%, and preferably between 200 and 400%.

Water holding capacity can also be measured volumetrically andrepresented as a percent of the volume of water retained in the biocharafter gravitationally draining the excess water/volume of biochar Thevolume of water retained in the biochar after draining the water can bedetermined from the difference between the water added to the containerand water drained off the container or from the difference in the weightof the wet biochar from the weight of the dry biochar converted to avolumetric measurement. This percentage water holding capacity fortreated biochar may be 30% and above by volume, and preferably 50-55percent and above by volume.

Given biochar's increased water retention capacity, the application ofthe treated biochar and even the raw biochar can greatly assist with thereduction of water and/or nutrient application. It has been discoveredthat these same benefits can be imparted to agricultural growth.

2. Plant Available Water

As illustrated in FIG. 8, plant available water is greatly increased intreated biochar over that of raw biochar. FIG. 8 illustrates the plantavailable water in raw biochar, versus treated biochar and treated driedbiochar and illustrates that treated biochar can have a plant availablewater percent of greater than 35% by volume.

“Plant Available Water” is the amount of unbound water in the materialavailable for plants to uptake. This is calculated by subtracting thewater content at permanent wilting point from the water content at fieldcapacity, which is the point when no water is available for the plants.Field capacity is generally expressed as the bulk water content retainedat −33 J/kg (or −0.33 bar) of hydraulic head or suction pressure.Permanent wilting point is generally expressed as the bulk water contentretained at −1500 J/kg (or −15.0 bar) of hydraulic head or suctionpressure. Methods for measuring plant available water are well-known inthe industry and use pressure plate extractor, which are commerciallyavailable or can be built using well-known principles of operation.

3. Remaining Water Content

Treated biochar of the present invention has also demonstrated theability to retain more water than raw biochar after exposure to theenvironment for defined periods of time. For purposes of thisapplication “remaining water content” can be defined as the total amountof water that remains held by the biochar after exposure to theenvironment for certain amount of time. Exposure to environment isexposure at ambient temperature and pressures. Under this definition,remaining water content can be may be measured by (i) creating a sampleof biochar that has reached its maximum water holding capacity; (ii)determining the total water content by thermogravimetric analysis (H2O(TGA)), as described above on a sample removed from the output of step(i) above, (iii) exposing the biochar in the remaining sample to theenvironment for a period of 2 weeks (15 days, 360 hrs.); (iv)determining the remaining water content by thermogravimetric analysis(H2O (TGA)); and (v) normalizing the remaining (retained) water in mL to1 kg or 1 L biochar. The percentage of water remaining after exposurefor this two-week period can be calculated by the remaining watercontent of the biochar after the predetermine period over the watercontent of the biochar at the commencement of the two-week period. Usingthis test, treated biochar has shown to retain water at rates over 4×that of raw biochar. Testing has further demonstrated that the followingamount of water can remain in treated biochar after two weeks ofexposure to the environment: 100-650 mL/kg; 45-150 mL/L; 12-30 gal/ton;3-10 gal/yd3 after 360 hours (15 days) of exposure to the environment.In this manner, and as illustrated in FIG. 12, biochar treated throughvacuum impregnation can increase the amount of retained water in biocharabout 3× compared to other methods even after seven weeks. In general,the more porous and the higher the surface area of a given material, thehigher the water retention capacity. Further, it is theorized that bymodifying the hydrophilicity/hydrophobicity of the pore surfaces,greater water holding capacity and controlled release may be obtained.Thus, viewed as a weight percent, e.g., the weight of retained water toweight of biochar, examples of the present biochars can retain more than5% of their weight, more than 10% of their weight, and more than 15% oftheir weight, and more compared to an average soil which may retain 2%or less, or between 100-600 ml/kg by weight of biochar

Tests have also shown that treated biochars that show weight loss of >1%in the interval between 43-60° C. when analyzed by the ThermalGravimetric Analysis (TGA) (as described below) demonstrate greaterwater holding and content capacities over raw biochars. Weight lossof >5%-15% in the interval between 38-68° C. when analyzed by theThermal Gravimetric Analysis (TGA) using sequences of time andtemperature disclosed in the following paragraphs or others may also berealized. Weight percentage ranges may vary from between >1% -15% intemperature ranges between 38-68° C., or subsets thereof, to distinguishbetween treated biochar and raw biochar.

FIG. 9 is a chart 900 showing the weight loss of treated biochars 902verses raw biochar samples 904 when heated at varying temperatures usingthe TGA testing described below. As illustrated, the treated biochars902 continue to exhibit weight loss when heated between 40-60° C. whenanalyzed by the Thermal Gravimetric Analysis (TGA) (described below),whereas the weight loss in raw biochar 904 between the same temperatureranges levels off. Thus, testing demonstrates the presence of additionalmoisture content in treated biochars 902 versus raw biochars 904.

In particular, the treated biochars 902 exhibit substantial water losswhen heated in inert gas such as nitrogen. More particularly, whenheated for 25 minutes at each of the following temperatures 20, 30, 40,50 and 60 degrees Celsius, ° C. the treated samples lose about 5-% to15% in the interval 43-60° C. and upward of 20-30% in the intervalbetween 38-68° C. The samples to determine the water content of the rawbiochar were obtained by mixing a measured amount of biochar and water,stirring the biochar and water for 2 minutes, draining off the water,measuring moisture content and then subjecting the sample to TGA. Thesamples for the treated biochar were obtained by using the same measuredamount of biochar as used in the raw biochar sample, and impregnatingthe biochar under vacuum. Similar results are expected with biochartreated with a treatment process consistent with those described in thisdisclosure with the same amount of water as used with the raw biochar.The moisture content is then measured and the sample is subjected to TGAdescribed above.

The sequences of time and temperature conditions for evaluating theeffect of biochars heating in inert atmosphere is defined in thisapplication as the “Bontchev-Cheyne Test” (“BCT”). The BCT is run usingsamples obtained, as described above, and applying Thermal GravimetricAnalysis (TGA) carried out using a Hitachi STA 7200 analyzer undernitrogen flow at the rate of 110 mL/min. The biochar samples are heatedfor 25 minutes at each of the following temperatures: 20, 30, 40, 50 and60° C. The sample weights are measured at the end of each dwell step, atthe beginning and at the end of the experiment. The analyzer alsocontinually measures and records weight over time. Biochars havingenhanced water holding or retention capacities are those that exhibitweight loss of >5% in the interval between 38-68° C., >1% in theinterval between 43-60° C. Biochars with greater water holding orretention capacities can exhibit >5% weight loss in the interval between43-60° C. measured using the above described BCT.

D. Impregnation and/or Inoculation with Infiltrates or Additives

In addition to mitigating or removing deleterious pore surfaceproperties, by treating the pores of the biochar through a forced,assisted, accelerate or rapid infiltration process, such as thosedescribed above, the pore surface properties of the biochar can beenhanced. Such treatment processes may also permit subsequentprocessing, may modify the pore surface to provide predeterminedproperties to the biochar, and/or provide combinations and variations ofthese effects. For example, it may be desirable or otherwiseadvantageous to coat substantially all, or all of the biochar macroporeand mesopore surfaces with a surface modifying agent or treatment toprovide a predetermined feature to the biochar, e.g., surface charge andcharge density, surface species and distribution, targeted nutrientaddition, magnetic modifications, root growth facilitator, and waterabsorptivity and water retention properties.

By infusing liquids into the pores of biochar, it has been discoveredthat additives infused within the pores of the biochar provide a timerelease effect or steady flow of some beneficial substances to the rootzones of the plants and also can improve and provide a more beneficialenvironment for microbes which may reside or take up residence withinthe pores of the biochar. In particular, additive infused biocharsplaced in the soil prior to or after planting can dramatically reducethe need for high frequency application of additives, minimize lossescaused by leaching and runoff and/or reduce or eliminate the need forcontrolled release fertilizers. They can also be exceptionallybeneficial in animal feed applications by providing an effectivedelivery mechanism for beneficial nutrients, pharmaceuticals, enzymes,microbes, or other substances.

For purposes of this application, “infusion” of a liquid or liquidsolution into the pores of the biochar means the introduction of theliquid or liquid solution into the pores of the biochar by a means otherthan solely contacting the liquid or solution with the biochar, e.g.,submersion. The infusion process, as described in this application inconnection with the present invention, includes a mechanical, chemicalor physical process that facilitates or assist with the penetration ofliquid or solution into the pores of the biochar, which process mayinclude, but not be limited to, positive and negative pressure changes,such as vacuum infusion, surfactant infusion, or infusion by movement ofthe liquid and/or biochar (e.g., centrifugal force, steam and/orultrasonic waves) or other method that facilitates, assists, forces oraccelerates the liquid or solution into the pores of the biochar. Priorto infusing the biochar, the biochar, as described in detail above, maybe washed and/or moisture adjusted.

FIG. 10 is a flow diagram 1000 of one example of a method for infusingbiochar with an additive. Optionally, the biochar may first be washed ortreated at step 1002, the wash may adjust the pH of the biochar, asdescribed in more detail above, or may be used to remove elemental ashand other harmful organics that may be unsuitable for the desiredinfused fertilizer. Optionally, the moisture content of the biochar maythen be adjusted by drying the biochar at step 1004, also as describedin further detail above, prior to infusion of the additive or inoculantat step 1006.

In summary, the infusion process may be performed with or without anywashing, prior pH adjustment or moisture content adjustment. Optionally,the infusion process may be performed with the wash and/or the moistureadjustment step. All the processes may be completed alone or in theconjunction with one or more of the others.

Through the above process of infusing the additive into the pores of thebiochar, the pores of the biochar may be filled by 25%, up to 100%, withan additive solution, as compared to 1-20% when the biochar is onlysubmerged in the solution or washed with the solution for a period ofless than twelve hours. Higher percentages may be achieved by washingand/or drying the pores of the biochar prior to infusion.

Data have been gathered from research conducted comparing the results ofsoaking or immersion of biochar in liquid versus vacuum impregnation ofliquid into biochar. These data support the conclusion that vacuumimpregnation provides greater benefits than simple soaking and resultsin a higher percentage volume of moisture on the surface, interstitiallyand in the pores of the biochar.

In one experiment, equal quantities of pine biochar were mixed withequal quantities of water, the first in a beaker, the second in a vacuumflask. The mixture in the beaker was continuously stirred for up to 24hours, then samples of the suspended solid were taken, drained andanalyzed for moisture content. The mixture in the vacuum flask wasconnected to a vacuum pump and negative pressure of 15″ was applied.Samples of the treated solid were taken, drained and analyzed formoisture content. FIG. 11 is a chart illustrating the results of theexperiment. The lower graph 1102 of the chart, which shows the resultsof soaking over time, shows a wt. % of water of approximately 52%. Theupper graph 1104 of the chart, which shows the results of vacuumimpregnation over time, shows a wt. % of water of approximately 72%.

FIGS. 12a and 12b show two charts that further illustrate that the totalwater and/or any other liquid content in processed biochar can besignificantly increased using vacuum impregnation instead of soaking.FIG. 12a compares the mL of total water or other liquid by retained by 1mL of treated pine biochar. The graph 1202 shows that approximately 0.17mL of water or other liquid are retained through soaking, while thegraph 1204 shows that approximately 0.42 mL of water or other liquid areretained as a result of vacuum impregnation. FIG. 12b shows that theretained water of pine biochar subjected to soaking consists entirely ofsurface and interstitial water 1206, while the retained water of pinebiochar subjected to vacuum impregnation consists not only of surfaceand interstitial water 1208 a, but also water impregnated in the poresof the biochar 1208 b.

In addition, as illustrated by FIG. 13, the amount of moisture contentimpregnated into the pores of vacuum processed biochars by varying theapplied (negative) pressure during the treatment process. The graphs offour different biochars all show how the liquid content of the pours ofeach of them increase to 100% as vacuum reactor pressure is increased.

In another experiment, the percentage of water retained in the pores ofpine derived biochar was measured to determine the difference inretained water in the pores of the biochar (i) soaked in water, and (ii)mixed with water subjected to a partial vacuum. For the soaking, 250 mLof raw biochar was mixed with 500 mL water in a beaker. Upon continuousstirring for 24 hrs., aliquots of the suspended solid were taken,drained on a paper towel and analyzed for moisture content. For thevacuum, 250 mL of raw biochar was mixed with 500 mL water in a vacuumflask. The flask was connected to a vacuum pump and negative pressure of15″ has been applied, aliquots of the treated solid were taken, drainedon a paper towel and analyzed for moisture content.

The total retained water amounts were measured for each sample. For thesoaked biochar, the moisture content of biochar remains virtuallyconstant for the entire duration of the experiment, 52 wt. % (i.e. 1 gof “soaked biochar” contains 0.52 g water and 0.48 g “dry biochar”).Taking into account the density of raw biochar, 0.16 g/cm³ (or mL), thevolume of the 0.48 g “dry biochar” is 3.00 mL (i.e. 3 mL dry biochar can“soak” and retain 0.52 mL water, or 1 mL dry biochar can retain 0.17 mLwater (sorbed on the surface and into the pores)).

For vacuum, the moisture content of the biochar remains virtuallyconstant for the entire duration of the experiment, 72 wt. %, (i.e. 1 gof vacuum impregnated biochar contains 0.72 g water and 0.28 g “drybiochar”). Taking into account the density of raw biochar, 0.16 g/cm³(or mL), the volume of the 0.28 g “dry biochar” is 1.75 mL (i.e. 1.75 mLdry biochar under vacuum can “absorb” and retain 0.72 mL water, or 1 mLdry biochar can retain 0.41 mL water (sorbed on the surface and into thepores)).

It was next determined where the water was retained—in the pores or onthe surface of the biochar. Capillary porosity (“CP”) (vol % inside thepores of the biochar), non-capillary porosity (“NCP”) (vol. %outside/between the particles), and the total porosity (CP+NCP)) weredetermined. Total porosity and non-capillary porosity were analyticallydetermined for the dry biochar and then capillary porosity wascalculated.

Since the dry biochar used in this experiment had a density less thanwater, the particles could be modeled and then tested to determine ifsoaking and/or treating the biochar could infuse enough water to makethe density of the biochar greater than that of water. Thus, the drybiochar would float and, if enough water infused into the pores, thesoaked or treated biochar would sink. Knowing the density of water andthe density of the biochar, calculations were done to determine thepercentage of pores that needed to be filled with water to make thebiochar sink. In this specific experiment, these calculations determinedthat more than 24% of the pore volume would need to be filled with waterfor the biochar to sink. The two processed biochars, soaked and vacuumtreated, were then immersed in water after 1 hour of said processing.The results of the experiment showed that the vast majority of thesoaked biochar floated and remained floating after 3 weeks, while thevast majority of the vacuum treated biochar sank and remained at thebottom of the water column after 3 weeks.

Using the results of these experiments and model calculations, thebiochar particles can be idealized to estimate how much more water is inthe pores from the vacuum treatment versus soaking. Since the externalsurface of the materials are the same, it was assumed that the samplesretain about the same amount of water on the surface. Then the mostconservative assumption was made using the boundary condition forparticles to be just neutral, i.e. water into pores equal 24%, the waterdistribution is estimated as follows:

VACUUM DRY SOAKED TREATED BIOCHAR BIOCHAR BIOCHAR Experimental resultFLOATED FLOATED SANK Total water (determined in 0% 52% 72% first part ofexperiment) Water in the pores (assumed 0% 24% 44% for floating biocharto be boundary condition, calculated for biochar that sank) Water on thesurface 0% 28% 28% (calculated for floating biochar, assumed to matchfloating biochar for the biochar that sank)

In summary, these experimental tests and model calculations show thatthrough vacuum treatment more than 24% of the pores of the biochar canbe filled with water and in fact at least 1.8 times the amount of watercan be infused into the pores compared to soaking. Vacuum treatment canimpregnate almost two times the amount of water into the pores for 1minute, while soaking does not change the water amount into the poresfor three weeks.

The pores may be substantially filled or completely filled withadditives to provide enhanced performance features to the biochar, suchas increased plant growth, nutrient delivery, water retention, nutrientretention, disadvantageous species control, e.g., weeds, disease causingbacteria, insects, volunteer crops, etc. By infusing liquid into thepore structure through the application of positive or negative pressure,surfactant and/or ultrasonic waves, alone or in combination, providesthe ability to impregnate the mesopores and macropores of the biocharwith additives, that include, but are not limited to, soil enhancingsolutions and solids.

The additive may be a soil enhancing agent that includes, but is not belimited to, any of the following: water, water solutions of salts,inorganic and organic liquids of different polarities, liquid organiccompounds or combinations of organic compounds and solvents, mineral andorganic oils, slurries and suspensions, supercritical liquids,fertilizers, PGPB (including plant growth promoting rhizobacteria,free-living and nodule-forming nitrogen fixing bacteria, organicdecomposers, nitrifying bacteria, and phosphate solubilizing bacteria),biocontrol agents, bioremediation agents, saprotrophic fungi,ectomycorrhizae and endomycorrhizae, among others.

Fertilizers that may be infused into the biochar include, but are notlimited to, the following sources of nitrogen, phosphorous, andpotassium: urea, ammonium nitrate, calcium nitrate, sulfur, ammoniumsulfate, monoammonium phosphate, ammonium polyphosphate, potassiumsulfate, or potassium chloride.

Similar beneficial results are expected from other additives, such as:bio pesticides; herbicides; insecticides; nematicides; plant hormones;plant pheromones; organic or inorganic fungicides; algicides;antifouling agents; antimicrobials; attractants; biocides, disinfectantsand sanitizers; miticides; microbial pesticides; molluscicides;bacteriacides; fumigants; ovicides; repellents; rodenticides,defoliants, desiccants; insect growth regulators; plant growthregulators; beneficial microbes; and, microbial nutrients or secondarysignal activators, that may also be added to the biochar in a similarmanner as a fertilizer. Additionally, beneficial macro- and micro-nutrients such as, calcium, magnesium, sulfur, boron, zinc, iron,manganese, molybdenum, copper and chloride may also be infused into thebiochar in the form of a water solution or other solvent solution.

Examples of compounds, in addition to fertilizer, that may be infusedinto the pores of the biochar include, but are not limited to:phytohormones, such as, abscisic acid (ABA), auxins, cytokinins,gibberellins, brassinosteroies, salicylic acid, jasmonates, planetpeptide hormones, polyamines, karrikins, strigolactones;2,1,3-Benzothiadiazole (BTH), an inducer of systemic acquired resistancethat confers broad spectrum disease resistance (including soil bornepathogens); signaling agents similar to BTH in mechanism or structurethat protects against a broad range or specific plant pathogens; EPSPSinhibitors; synthetic auxins; photosystem I inhibitors photosystem IIinhibitors; and HPPD inhibitors. Growth media, broths, or othernutrition to support the growth of microbes or microbial life may alsobe infused such as Lauryl Tryptose broth, glucose, sucrose, fructose, orother sugars or micronutrients known to be beneficial to microbes.Binders or binding solutions can also be infused into the pores to aidin the adhesion of coatings, as well as increasing the ability for thetreated biochar to associate or bond with other nearby particles in seedcoating applications. Infusion with these binders can also allow for thecoating of the biochar particle itself with other beneficial organismsor substances.

In one example, a 1000 ppm NO³⁻ N fertilizer solution is infused intothe pores of the biochar. As discussed above, the method to infusebiochar with the fertilizer solution may be accomplished generally byplacing the biochar in a vacuum infiltration tank or other sealablerotating vessel, chamber or tank. When using vacuum infiltration, avacuum may be applied to the biochar and then the solution may beintroduced into the tank. Alternatively, the solution and biochar mayboth be introduced into the tank and, once introduced, a vacuum isapplied. Based upon the determined total pore volume of the biochar orthe incipient wetness, the amount of solution to introduce into the tanknecessary to fill the pore of the biochar can be determined. Wheninfused in this manner, significantly more nutrients can be held in agiven quantity of biochar versus direct contact of the biochar with thenutrients alone.

When using a surfactant, the biochar and additive solution may be addedto a tank along with 0.01-20% of surfactant, but more preferably 1-5% ofsurfactant by volume of fertilizer solution. The surfactant or detergentaids in the penetration of the wash solution into the pores of thebiochar. The same or similar equipment used in the vacuum infiltrationprocess can be used in the surfactant treatment process. Although it isnot necessary to apply a vacuum in the surfactant treatment process, thevacuum infiltration tank or any other rotating vessel, chamber or tankcan be used. Again, while it is not necessary to apply a vacuum, avacuum may be applied or the pressure in the vessel may be changed.Further, the surfactant can be added with or without heat or coolingeither of the infiltrate, the biochar, the vessel itself, or anycombination of the three.

The utility of infusing the biochar with fertilizer is that the pores inbiochar create a protective “medium” for carrying the nutrients to thesoil that provides a more constant supply of available nutrients to thesoil and plants and continues to act beneficially, potentially sorbingmore nutrients or nutrients in solution even after introduction to thesoil. By infusing the nutrients in the pores of the biochar, immediateoversaturation of the soil with the nutrients is prevented and a timereleased effect is provided. This effect is illustrated in connectionwith FIGS. 14 and 15. As demonstrated in connection with FIGS. 14 & 15below, biochars having pores infused with additives, using the infusionmethods described above, have been shown to increase nutrient retention,increase crop yields and provide a steadier flow of fertilizer to theroot zones of the plants. In fact, the interior and exterior surfaces ofthe biochar may be treated to improve their sorption and exchangecapabilities for the targeted nutrients prior to inoculation orinfusion. This is the preferred approach as it allows for the tailoringof the surfaces to match the materials being carried. An example wouldbe to treat the surfaces to increase the anionic exchange capacity wheninfusing with materials which typically manifest as anions, such asnitrates.

D. Application

Given biochar's increased water retention capacities, and structure tosupport microbial life, the application of the treated biochar and, insome cases raw biochar, can greatly assist with increased efficiency ofwater and nutrients. To improve soil quality in crop applications,biochar can be applied in a manner that incorporates ease, low cost,effectiveness, and in many cases precision, although in manyapplications this is not strictly necessary.

To ensure effective application, the biochar to be applied, raw ortreated as described previously, should have certain characteristics. Atleast 95% (by weight) of the biochar applied should have a particle sizeless than or equal to 10 mm. Also, to demonstrate the best results ofbiochar addition, the biochar should have one or more of the followingproperties: an Anion Exchange Capacity (“AEC”) greater than 5 meq/l,more preferably greater than 10 meq/l and even more preferably greaterthan 20 meq/l; a Cation Exchange Capacity (“CEC”) greater than 5 meq/l,more preferably greater than 10 meq/l and even more preferably greaterthan 20 meq/l, an ash content less than 15% (mass basis) and preferablyless than 5%; a hydrophobicity index of below 12, more preferably below10, even more preferably below 6, and most preferably between 0-4 asderived by comparing the sorption of water to ethanol using a tensioninfiltrometer (Tillman, R. W., D. R. Scotter, M. G. Wallis and B. E.Clothier. 1989, Water-repellency and its measurement by using intrinsicsorptivity. Aust. J. Soil Res. 27: 637-644); and a pH between 4 and 9,preferably between 5 and 8.5, or more preferably between 5 and 6.5.

Anion exchange capacity (“AEC”) of biochar may be calculated by directlyor indirectly- saturated paste extraction of exchangeable anions, Cl⁻,NO₃ ⁻, SO₄ ²⁻, and PO4³⁻to calculate anion sum or the use of potassiumbromide to saturate anions sites at different pHs and repeated washingswith calcium chloride and final measurement of bromide (see Rhoades, J.D. 1982, Soluble salts, p. 167-179. In: A. L. Page et al. (ed.) Methodsof soil analysis: Part 2: Chemical and microbiological properties; andMichael Lawrinenkoa and David A. Laird, 2015, Anion exchange capacity ofbiochar, Green Chem., 2015, 17, 4628-4636). When treated using the abovemethods, including but not limited by washing under a vacuum, treatedbiochar generally has an AEC greater than 5 milliq/l and some even havean AEC greater than 20 (millieq/l).

One method for cation exchange capacity (“CEC”) determination is the useof ammonium acetate buffered at pH 7.0 (see Schollenberger, C. J. andDreibelbis, E R. 1930, Analytical methods in base-exchangeinvestigations on soils, Soil Science, 30, 161-173). The material issaturated with 1M ammonium acetate, (NH₄OAc), followed by the release ofthe NH₄ ⁺ ions and its measurement in meq/100 g (milliequivalents ofcharge per 100 g of dry soil) or cmolc/kg (centimoles of charge perkilogram of dry soil). Instead of ammonium acetate, another method usesbarium chloride according to Mehlich, 1938, Use of triethanolamineacetate-barium hydroxide buffer for the determination of some baseexchange properties and lime requirement of soil, Soil Sci. Soc. Am.Proc. 29:374-378. 0.1 M BaCl₂ is used to saturate the exchange sitesfollowed by replacement with either MgSO₄ or MgCl₂.

Indirect methods for CEC calculation involves the estimation ofextracted Ca₂ ⁺, Mg₂ ⁺, K⁺, and Na⁺ in a standard soil test usingMehlich 3 and accounting for the exchangeable acidity (sum of H⁺, Al₃ ⁺,Mn₂ ⁺, and Fe₂ ⁺) if the pH is below 6.0 (see Mehlich, A. 1984,Mehlich-3 soil test extractant: a modification of Mehlich-2 extractant,Commun. Soil Sci. Plant Anal. 15(12): 1409-1416). When treated using theabove methods, including but not limited by washing under a vacuum,treated biochars generally have a CEC greater than 5 millieq/l and someeven have a CEC greater than 25 (millieq/l).

To measure hydrophobicity/hydrophilicity, two tests may be used to testthe hydrophobicity/hydrophilicity of biochar: (i) the Molarity ofEthanol Drop (“MED”) Test; and (ii) the Infiltrometer Test. As set forthabove, hydrophobicity index of below 12 is desired, more preferablybelow 10, even more preferably below 6, and most preferably between 0-4as indexed by either MED testing or the Infiltrometer Test.

The MED test was originally developed by Doerr in 1998 and latermodified by other researchers for various materials. The MED test is atimed penetration test that is noted to work well with biochar soilmixtures. For 100% biochar, penetration time of different mixtures ofethanol/water are noted to work better. Ethanol/Water mixtures versessurface tension dynes were correlated to determine whether treatedbiochar has increased hydrophilicity over raw biochar. Seven mixtures ofethanol and deionized water were used with a sorption time of 3 secondson the biochar.

Seven solutions of deionized (“DI”) water with the following respectivepercentages of ethanol: 3, 5, 11, 13, 18, 24 and 36, were made fortesting. The test starts with a mixture having no DI. If the solution issoaked into the biochar in 3 seconds for the respective solution, itreceives the corresponding Hydrophobicity Index value below.

Ethanol Hydrophobicity % Index 0: DI Water 0 Very Hydrophillic  3% 1  5%2 11% 3 13% 4 18% 5 24% 6 36% 7 Strongly hydrophobic

To start the test the biochar (“material/substrate”) is placed inconvenient open container prepared for testing. Typically, materials tobe tested are dried 110° C. overnight and cooled to room temperature.The test starts with a deionized water solution having no ethanol.Multiple drips of the solution are then laid onto the substrate surfacefrom low height. If drops soak in less than 3 seconds, test recordssubstrate as “0”. If drops take longer than 3 seconds or don't soak in,go to test solution 1. Then, using test solution 1, multiple drops fromdropper are laid onto the surface from low height. If drops soak intothe substrate in less than 3 seconds, test records material as “1”. Ifdrops take longer than 3 seconds, or don't soak in, go to test solution2. Then, using test solution 2, multiple drops from dropper laid ontothe surface from low height. If drops soak into the substrate in lessthan 3 seconds, test records material as “2”. If drops take longer than3 seconds, or don't soak in, go to test solution 3. Then, using testsolution 3, multiple drops from dropper laid onto the surface from lowheight. If drops soak into the substrate in less than 3 seconds, testrecords material as “3”. If drops take longer than 3 seconds, or don'tsoak in, go to solution 4.

The process above is repeated, testing progressively higher numbered MEDsolutions until the tester finds the solution that soaks into thesubstrate in 3 seconds or less. The substrate is recorded as having thathydrophobicity index number that correlates to the solution numberassigned to it.

Another way to measure hydrophobicity/hydrophilicity is by using a minidisk infiltrometer. For this test procedure, the bubble chamber of theinfiltrometer is filled three quarters full with tap water for bothwater and ethanol sorptivity tests. Deionized or distilled water is notused. Once the upper chamber is full, the infiltrometer is inverted andthe water reservoir on the reserve is filled with 80 mL. Theinfiltrometer is carefully set on the position of the end of themariotte tube with respect to the porous disk to ensure a zero suctionoffset while the tube bubbles. If this dimension is changedaccidentally, the end of the mariotte tube should be reset to 6 mm fromthe end of the plastic water reservoir tube. The bottom elastomer isthen replaced, making sure the porous disk is firmly in place. If theinfiltrometer is held vertically using a stand and clamp, no watershould leak out.

The suction rate of 1 cm is set for all samples. If the surface of thesample is not smooth, a thin layer of fine biochar can be applied to thearea directly underneath the infiltrometer stainless steel disk. Thisensures good contact between the samples and the infiltrometer. Readingsare then taken at 1 min intervals for both water and ethanol sorptivitytest. To be accurate, 20 mL water or 95% ethanol needs to be infiltratedinto the samples. Record time and water/ethanol volumes at the times arerecorded.

The data is then processed to determine the results. The data isprocessed by the input of the volume levels and time to thecorresponding volume column. The following equation is used to calculatethe hydrophobicity index of R

$I = {{at} + {b\sqrt{t}}}$ a:  Infiltration  Rate, cm/sb:  Sorptivity, cm/s^(1/2) $R = {1.95*\frac{b_{ethanol}}{b_{water}}}$

As an example, raw biochar and treated biochar were tested with ethanoland water, five times for each. The results below on a coconut basedbiochar show that the hydrophobicity index of the treated biochar islower than the raw biochar.

MATERIAL HYDROPHOBICITY INDEX Dried Raw Biochar 12.9 Dried VacuumTreated Biochar 10.4 Dried Surfactant Treated Biochar 7.0 As Is RawBiochar 5.8 As Is Vacuum Treated Biochar 2.9

For measuring pH, there are a wide variety of tests, apparatus andequipment for making pH measurements. For example, and preferably whenaddressing the pH of biochar, batches, particles and pore surfaces ofthose particles, two appropriates for measuring pH are the Test Methodfor the US Composting Council (“TMCC”) 4.11-A and the pH Test Methodpromulgated by the International Biochar Initiative. The test method forthe TMCC comprises mixing biochar with distilled water in 1:5[mass:volume] ratio, e.g., 50 grams of biochar is added to 250 mol f pH7.0±0.02 water and is stirred for 10 minutes; the pH is then themeasured pH of the slurry. The pH Test Method promulgated by theInternational Biochar Initiative comprises 5 grams of biochar is addedto 100 mol f water pH=7.0±0.02 and the mixture is tumbled for 90minutes; 25 the pH is the pH of the slurry at the end of the 90 minutesof tumbling. In one example, prior to and before testing, biochar ispassed through a 2 mm sieve before pH is measured. All measurements aretaken according to Rajkovich et. al, Corn growth and nitrogen nutritionafter additions of biochars with varying properties to a temperate soil,Biol. Fertil. Soils (2011), from which the IBI method is based.

To allow for certain application methods to be successful, the biocharshould flow well without much dust. This is particularly important inapplications focused on row crops. One simple method for determiningflow characteristics is by using a series of glass funnels withdifferent outlet diameters. The measurement can either be qualitative,by observing if the material flows through the funnel withoutinterruption, or quantitative by determining the length of time it takesfor the material to flow through each funnel and if any manualagitations are necessary during the process. The smaller the outletdiameter funnel that the material flows through without interruption themore flowable the material is considered. For the biochar to flow well,it generally should flow uninterrupted through a funnel with an orificeof 12 mm or less, and preferably through one with an orifice of 8 mm orless.

Another well-known empirical method for predicting flowablity includeslooking at both the angle of repose and the Hausner ratio (as explainedbelow). The angle of repose is determined by forming a symmetrical pileor cone of material and then determining the angle of the side of thecone by measuring the height of the cone and the base and calculatingsaid angle, the angle of repose. The Hausner ratio is equal to thetapped bulk density over the loose bulk density of the material. Thismethod is summarized well in Table 1 from “Measuring the flowingproperties of powders and grains” by G. Lumay, et. al. in PowderTechnology 224 (2012), in which passable flow is classified as having anangle of repose of 41-45° and a Hausner ratio of 1.26 to 1.34, fair flowis classified as having an angle of repose of 36-40° and a Hausner ratioof 1.19 to 1.25, good flow is classified as having an angle of repose of31-35° and a Hausner ratio of 1.12 to 1.18, and excellent flow isclassified as having an angle of repose of 25-30° and a Hausner ratio of1.00 to 1.11. Materials that have angles of repose of 46° or greater andHausner ratios of 1.35 or greater are considered poor flowing.

For biochar to flow well, it should generally have an angle of repose of45° or less and a Hausner ratio of 1.34 or less, and preferably have anangle of repose of 40° or less and a Hausner ratio of 1.25 or less, andeven more preferably to have an angle of repose of 35° or less and aHausner ratio of 1.18 or less. Sometimes the dynamic angle of reposemust also be considered to predict flowability of a material. This isdefined as the angle of repose while the material is rotating at aspecified speed in a drum or a cylinder with a clear flat cover on oneend. Biochar should generally have a dynamic angle of repose of 50° orless and preferably 45° or less and even more preferably 40° or less.

A newer method for trying to predict flow characteristics is thecompressibility index, which is defined as the difference between thetapped bulk density and the loose bulk density over the tapped densitytimes 100. The general accepted scale of flowability is that acompressibility index of 21 to 25 is passable, 16-20 is fair, 11-15 isgood and less than 10 is excellent. A compressibility index of 26 orgreater is considered poor. Thus, biochar should generally have acompressibility index of 25 or less, and preferably 20 or less, and evenmore preferably 15 or less.

Often particulate or powder material can be improved for flowability atthe detriment of increased dust creation when applied. Application of abiochar that is dusty can lead to environmental and safety issuesparticularly in large-scale applications, thus a biochar that is notdusty is preferred in a crop application setting. Higher moisturecontent is one way to reduce dust formation during application, but ifthe moisture becomes too high then the material will not flow well.Optimal biochar moisture levels on a weight basis to meet both the dustlimitations and flowability requirements are generally between 5 percentand 30 percent, and preferably between 10 percent and 20 percent. It isdifficult to achieve and maintain these characteristics without applyingsome form of treatment to the raw biochar.

One well known factor for improved flowability is uniform particle sizeand shape. Thus particle size distribution is another biocharcharacteristic that can impact flowability but it too can impact dustcreation at application. Thus, for most agricultural applications,biochar particle size distribution should generally be such that atleast 40% or more of the particles (mass basis) are between 0.3 mm and5.0 mm in diameter, and preferably 50% or more of the particles arebetween 0.5 mm and 2.0 mm in diameter,. To improve biochar flowabilityfurther through uniform particle size and shape the biochar particlesthemselves can be adjusted for example by grinding and/or separating bysize. Further uniformation can be done by transforming the biocharparticles into agglomerates or pellets, as described in co-pending U.S.Provisional Application 62/290,026 titled Biochar Aggregate Particles,filed Feb. 2, 2016, which is incorporated herein by reference in itsentirety. The biochar could also be placed into a solution to make aslurry and be applied as a liquid product, as described in co-pendingU.S. Provisional Patent Application Ser. No. 62/219,501 filed Sep. 16,2015 titled Biochar Suspended Solution, which is also incorporatedherein by reference in its entirety.

Another option for creating a more flowable product is by mixing in aflow aid to the biochar prior to application. This can either be done inthe manufacturing of the biochar product, just prior to application, forexample at the farm, or at any time in between, for example at adistributor's facility at time of sale. Flow aids are particularlyuseful when an optimal biochar moisture level is either unattainable oris not getting the biochar to the desired flowability characteristics.Dry mineral flow aids can be either hydrophobic or hydrophilic. Thesetypes of flow aids can be used alone or in combination. Flow aidsinclude but are not limited to perlite, vermiculite, gypsum, lime,diatomaceous earth, sand, talc, silica, zeolite, magnesium stearate, andclays such as bentonite or montmorillonite. In testing the addition ofsome flow aids or combination of flow aids to a biochar has improvedflow rates two or three fold, and in some cases even increased flow tentimes over that of the biochar alone.

If the biochar characteristics are compatible with the crop's typicalpre-plant fertilizer, it can also be applied by mixing with thefertilizer or other inputs prior to application or co-applying thefertilizer. The fertilizer could be a dry granulated material, a wettercompost material, or even a liquid fertilizer.

FIG. 16 illustrates one example of an application of biochar inconnection with the planting of a new tree 1600. For new treeapplications, biochar should be applied to soil in the root zone of thetree at a volumetric rate of 0.1% to 50%. One method to do this is bymixing the biochar with the backfill at the said volumetric rate andapplying approximately half the mixture first to the bottom of the holeprepared for planting a new tree, and applying the remaining half of themixture around the root ball of the newly planted tree during planting.For new tree applications where the trees have a size ranging from 2 to5 feet or caliper measurements of 5/16″ to ½″, from 1 cup to 10 gallonsof biochar could be used for every new tree planted. Those skilled inthe art will recognize that trees having larger sizes may require morebiochar, and similarly, trees with smaller sizes may require lessbiochar. In any event, biochar may be applied at a rate of approximately1:19—one part biochar to nineteen parts soil or 5%. However, beneficialresults may also be seen with application ratios varying between 1:999to 1:1 or 0.1% to 50%.

In application, the biochar, treated or untreated, is mixed with thesoil and applied in the hole dug for the placement of the tree 1600. Asnoted above, for most applications, biochar is mixed with backfill soilin a ratio of one part biochar to nineteen parts backfill, i.e. a ratioof 1:19, so as to create a percentage of biochar in the soil at theplant root zone equal to about 5%. Depending upon the applications, thedesired percentage of biochar could range from approximately 0.1-50%. Inthe current application, one half of this mixture would then be put onthe bottom of the hole 1602, then the new tree placed in the hole 1604,then remaining mixture would be wrapped around the root ball of the treein order to enable the roots to integrate with the treated biochar asthe tree 1600 grows.

Another method for new trees is to apply the biocarbon to the rootballof the transplant tree prior to planting or transplanting. This placesthe biochar in close vicinity to developing or juvenile root tissue andallows for more ready association of the plant with the material. Oneway to do this is to wet the rootball of the tree with water or amixture of water and a binder and then dip it into or coat it withbiochar. This can be done on site during the planting or prior toplanting for example at the nursery. Another way to incorporate thebiochar into the rootball itself is to apply the biochar to the soilsubstrate at the nursery where the sapling is growing. A third way toincorporate the biochar into the rootball would be to put it inside thewrap, sack, or netting that is placed around the root ball at thenursery. Again, in many instances, treatments can be made to the biocharto allow better affiliation of root tissue with the material—thesetreatments can include modification of physical or chemical propertiesas stated earlier, but they can also involve infusion of the biocharwith rooting hormones, biologicals, nutritionals, or other materialswhich promote plant root development.

Yet another application method for new trees is to top dress the soilwith a layer of biochar that is between ¼″ and 1″ after planting thetree and then either incorporating into the top 2-6″ or covering withmulch or compost.

FIG. 17 illustrates one example of an application of treated biochar inconnection with established trees 1700. For established treeapplications, the target volumetric percentage of biochar in the rootzone is between 0.1% and 50% and preferably between 0.3% and 20%, andeven more preferably between 0.5% and 10%, so the amount of biochar willvary depending on the size of the tree canopy and the rootball. Forestablished tree applications 1700, one method is to top dress the areaaround the tree under the canopy 1704 in the drip zone 1702, for examplespreading a layer of biochar that is ¼″ to 1″ deep. The biochar can thenbe either covered with a mulch or compost or be incorporated into thetop 2-3″ of soil 1702, for example, by raking the biochar into the soilarea in the drip zone 1702. When the tree is more deeply rooted, such asa lemon tree, the biochar may be introduced by means of an auger or airspade device to get the treated biochar closer to the root zone.

Another method for existing trees is to use concentric ring trenching.This means that trenches are dug in a ring set distances from the trunkout to the tree's drip line or a distance away from the trunk equal to1.5 feet per inch of trunk diameter. The smaller rings, closer to thetree, are dug deeper, and the larger rings closes to the tree's dripline are dug shallower. This is to match the general root system shape,as depicted in FIG. 17, where the roots are generally deepest below thetrunk and shallowest by the drip line. The trenches can be made usingvarious techniques including with a shovel, air spade, or drill. Theexact number, depth, and length of the ring trenches will be dependenton the tree health and size, again with the preferred (but not required)objective being to deliver the proper percentage of material into thevicinity of developing or growing root tissue. After the trenches aremade the biochar is integrated by mixing it with the backfill in a ratiofrom 0.1% to 50% based on volume. Generally speaking, with this methodthe percentage in the backfill will be a bit higher than with planting anew tree since a smaller portion of the root zone soil is being treatedwith the biochar. So a typical ratio may be about 1:4 or 20%.

A similar method for existing trees is to use radial trenching, where anumber of trenches are created from the trunk to the dripline or to adistance from the trunk equal to 1.5 feet per inch of trunk diameter.The trenches are dug deeper near the trunk and become shallower as theyget closer to the tree's drip line. Again, this is to match the generalroot system shape, as depicted in FIG. 17, where the roots are generallydeepest below the trunk and shallowest by the drip line. The trenchescan be made using various techniques including with a shovel, air spade,or drill. The exact number, depth, and length of the radial trencheswill be dependent on the tree health and size. After the trenches aremade the biochar is integrated by mixing it with the backfill in a ratiofrom 0.1% to 50% based on volume. Generally speaking with this methodthe percentage in the backfill will be a bit higher than with planting anew tree since a smaller portion of the root zone soil is being treatedwith the biochar. So, a typical ratio may be about 1:4.

Yet another method for existing trees is to use vertical mulching.Vertical mulching is a common procedure for trees used to aerate soil,partially decompact soil, fertilize the soil, or inoculate the rootzone, so it lends itself well to biochar application. Vertical mulchinginvolves the drilling of holes at regular spacing in the soil throughoutthe critical root zone beneath the tree canopy again usually to the dripline or to a distance from the trunk equal to 1.5 feet per inch of trunkdiameter. Holes are often drilled with a 2-3 inch wide auger bit to adepth of 8-10 inches on “2 ½ foot centers,” which means the holes arespaced apart 2 ½ feet on a grid pattern or a concentric circularpattern. Again, the exact number, depth, and size of the holes will bedependent on the tree health and size. After the holes are made, thebiochar is integrated by mixing it with the backfill in a ratio from0.1% to 50% based on volume. Generally speaking with this method thepercentage in the backfill will be a bit higher than with planting a newtree since a smaller portion of the root zone soil is being treated withthe biochar. So, a typical ratio may be about 1:3 for vertical mulching.

It should be noted that surface application, concentric ring trenching,radial trenching, and vertical mulching can all be combined in anycombination to provide the most effective delivery of material to theroot zone of existing plants, trees, crops, or ornamental shrubs. One,two, or all of the methods above may be used independently, or inconjunction, in any order, and either be performed simultaneously, orseparated in time by days, weeks, months, or even years.

One of the reasons biochar application in agricultural crops can be morefocused or not uniformly applied throughout the entire soil is that theroots can associate with the biocarbon particles and then bring thebiocarbon particles with them as they grow. Thus, the biocarbonparticles actually migrate through the soil. This is particularly truewith treated biochar as its increased hydrophilicity, neutral pH, andinoculation with water or other substances can often increase theassociation of root development near said treated biochar. FIGS. 18a and18b illustrates this biochar migration due to root development and rootassociation with treated biochar. In particular, FIGS. 18a and 18billustrate soil cores taken 19-weeks after sod installation. In the soilcore sample illustrated in FIG. 18a , biochar was applied on top of thesoil surface without rototilling and before sod installation. FIG. 18billustrates a control soil core sample control where no biochar wasapplied before applying the turf to the soil. As illustrated in FIG. 18a, the biochar particles 1802 can be seen greater than 6 inches below thesoil surface, demonstrating the migration of the biochar into the soildue to root development.

The ability to apply biochar at lower rates and more focusedapplications allows for a more economical model for the grower. Thisbenefit is most profound and needed in row crops, where growers look forthe lowest cubic yard per acre usage to get the benefits they need toensure the best value per acre of crop they produce.

FIG. 19 illustrates one example of an application of treated biochar inconnection with row crops 1900. Row crops are general comprised ofridges 1902 and furrows 1904, with the plant beds being on the ridges1902. For row crop applications, the furrows can often make up asignificant percentage of the land area, in some cases up to ½ the landacres. Thus, treating just the beds or even just the plant rows in thebed are the most effective ways to capture the benefits of a treatmentat the lowest usage and thus, lowest cost. As with other crops, a targetvolumetric percentage of biochar, treated or untreated, in the root zoneof the plants can be 0.1% to 50%, and preferably 0.3% to 20%. Dependingon dimensions of the row crops, treatment of the biochar to enhancebeneficial or desirable properties, and the specific method ofapplication, this could equate to 0.1 to 100 cubic yards per acre.

For row crops 1900, the easiest method for applying the treated biocharat high rates is to spread it either across the entire area beforebedding or across all the beds 1902 after bedding and then incorporatingit into the top 2-6″ prior to planting. The initial application can bedone using various methods including but not limited to broadcast,orchard, drop, compost, or manure spreaders. If laying down of producthappens after the beds are made, then the incorporation can be doneusing various methods including but not limited to using a rototiller,cultivator, disk, or shank.

Another more focused method that can be used is by laying down thebiochar along the planned plant rows in a bed, which depending on thecrop is generally 1 to 5 plant rows per bed. This is accomplished byusing equipment that lays down one or multiple bands of material. Theband of biochar that is placed where the plant row will be can beanywhere from 2 to 18 inches wide. Again prior to planting, the biocharcan be laid either prior to bed formation so that the bed formationincorporates the material into the soil or after the bed is formed andthen followed by an incorporation method that mixes the biochar into thetop 2 to 6 inches of soil. Equipment that can be used for laying downthese bands include but are not limited to gandy, insecticide, seed, andfertilizer boxes. With this method, low overall application rates of 1to 10 cubic yards per acre are easily achievable.

A final even further focused method that can be used is by putting downthe biochar just where the seeds or transplants will be planted andincorporated into the top 2-6 inches of soil. This method generallyrequires applying the biochar at the time of planting but allows for thelowest overall application rates down to 0.1 or even 0.01 cubic yardsper acre, while still meeting the volumetric percentage goal in the rootzone (or germination zone, in the case of a seed) of the plant. Thismethod can be done by hand or by equipment that includes but is notlimited to seed drills, planters, or strip till devices.

When planting row vines, it may be desirable for the biochar to beincorporated deeper, such as into the top 4-12″ of the plant bed, oralternatively mixing them in with backfill of individual vine holes in asimilar way as to new trees as described previously and depicted in FIG.16.

When the vines are established, the biochar may applied as a sidedressing, using equipment such as a manure or compost spreader and thendisking or shanking the material into the soil to incorporate it 4-12″deep on the side of the plant beds.

For containerized and potted plants, the biochar may be first mixed withsoil, in the desired volumetric percentage ranging from 0.1% to 50%. Themixture may be localized around the root zone of the potted plantsduring transplant. Alternatively, the biochar may be placed at thebottom of the container and soil placed directly on top withoutblending. Similarly, this method may also be used in connection withoutdoor flower and vegetable gardens. When used for outdoor flower andvegetable gardens, the mixture may be applied to the top 1″-6″ of soilin the garden, but preferably between 2″-4″.

In hydroponic applications, the biochar may be mixed with a well-knowngrowth medium or substrate, such as rock wool, or used alone. Typicallyin hydroponic applications, larger particle sizes are desirable, with atleast of 50% of particles (mass basis) being greater than 2.0 mm indiameter, although this is not strictly necessary.

In tests conducted with different agricultural crops (e.g. cucumbers,lettuce and tomatoes), biochar has been shown to promote improvements incrop vigor, quality and productivity and immobilize toxins in reducedwater and fertilizer environments.

For example, in a sample of approximately seventy lettuce plants grownin an environment of reduced fertigation rates of 25 lbs/acre, thoselettuce plants that were grown with 6 cubic yards per acre of treatedbiochar, treated in accordance with the methods set forth above,demonstrated an increase in wet biomass grown over the same time periodthan the control plants grown in the same soil, with the samefertigation rates, absent the biochar. Increase in wet biomass (e.g.,plant weight after harvest) showed a generally consistent increase overa control group of the same number plant. Summary results of this studyand harvest yield are shown below.

Groups Count Sum Average Variance 6 CY/acre 67 172.8 2.579104 0.558951Control 67 141.6 2.113433 0.454817

The above reports the sum of the wet biomass of sixty-seven lettuceplants in a control and sixty-seven lettuce plants in soil havingtreated biochar applied at a rate of 6 cubic yards per acre. The averagewet biomass per plant and variance is reported above. The same reductionin fertilizer was applied, in the same soil, using the same waterconditions, for both the control group and biochar enhanced group.

Similar testing was performed on tomato crops applied to the same soil,under the same watering condition. For these tests, perlite, vermiculiteand treated biochar (treated in accordance with the above describedtreatment methods) were each applied to separate crops. The datademonstrated that soil with the treated biochar maintained a neutralsoil pH of 7 as compared to perlite and vermiculite. The soil with thetreated biochar was also shown to increase water retention rates andavailable potassium (ppm), as well as immobilize toxic substances. Theseresults are summarized below.

Treated Biochar Perlite Vermiculite (pine) Size 2-2.8 mm 2-2.8 mm 2-2.8mm pH 6 8.5 7 Water retention, % 25 220 308 Avail. Potassium, 0 2.2 1575ppm Immobilize Toxics NO NO YES

Further trials were performed to evaluate the effects of grower standardfertilizer and watering programs against a 20% reduced grower standardfertilizer and watering program for the production of cannery tomatoeswith and without a known rate of treated biochar incorporated into theplanting beds. The grower standard fertilizer at 100% and at an 80%reduction for fertilizer application rates (gallons per acre) upon whichthe trials were based is shown below.

Fertilizer Application rate gallons per acre Growers Standard 80% N2-16-16 (P, K) 2 2 UN 32 (N) 17 13.5 KTS (K, S) 10 10

The treated biochar in the test application was incorporated into theplanting beds at 30% of the bed volume (1.67 feet wide by ½ foot deep)by placing the appropriate amount of material on the beds andincorporating with a rototiller. In season fertilizer was applied atstandard and reduced rates by the growers in field drip tape asindicated below. The final plant production data for the variations inapplication standards for water and fertilizer with and without thetreated biochar is shown below.

Final Production Data, pounds in each Replicate Treated Growers TreatedGrowers Growers Biochar- Standard- Biochar- Standard- Replicate Standard20% N 20% N 20% H2O 20% H2O 1 56.0 89.6 28.8 38.4 36 2 52.8 73.6 47.249.6 33.6 3 41.6 60.8 35.2 54.4 40 4 46.4 54.4 56.0 78.4 44.8 5 40.867.2 33.6 65.6 38.4 6 38.4 41.6 38.4 64.8 51.2 Total Pounds 276 387.2239.2 351.2 244 % 0% 40% −13% 27% −12% Improvement

As illustrated above, the incorporation of the treated biochar with a 20percentage reduction in fertilizer and water, reduced and testedindependently, produces higher product yields than the grower'sstandards. The test further demonstrates that the introduction of thetreated biochar is the catalyst for the increased yield with at least 20percentage reduction in fertilizer over grower standards and with atleast 20 percent reduction in water over grower's standards.

In another field trial, the more focused lower overall application rateswere tested on a lettuce crop. The trial used six 250-sq ft replicatesper treatment and compared the use of two different feedstock basedtreated biochars at two different rates versus grower standard. Theapplication method used was the band method on top of the bed along theplant row prior to planting. The material was laid down in a 6 inch bandusing a Gandy box applicator and then incorporated several inches evenlyinto the soil using a rotary tiller. The two application rates used were0.5 cubic yards per acre and 1.6 cubic yards per acre, and with saidmethod were estimated to be at about 1 percent (volume) and 3 percent(volume), respectively, in the root zone. At the mature leaf lettuceharvest, eighty plants were randomly selected to be harvested from eachtreatment block. The final plant weight harvests are shown below, andall yield improvement results were statistically significant at a 90%confidence interval:

Treated Treated Treated Treated Biochar Biochar Biochar Biochar fromfrom from from Growers Coconut Pine Coconut Pine Standard Shell WoodShell Wood Biochar Rate 0 0.5 0.5 1.6 1.6 (Cubic yards/acre) Estimated0%   1%   1%   3%   3% Biochar vol % in root zone Yield (lbs) 65.8395.67 87.17 104.17 84.67 Yield increase — 45.3% 32.4% 58.2% 28.6% overgrowers standard

For purposes of this application, “grower's standard” shall mean goodagricultural practice as it relates to a particular crop, geographicregion, climate and soil condition. Grower's standards will governwatering patterns, watering amounts, fertilizer types and fertigationrates.

As illustrated, biochar increases the water and nutrient holding andretention capacity of the soils where it is applied. These componentsare held in the root zone for easy access by plant roots, which lead tohigh growth performance. Tree plantings demonstrate substantialdecreases in the rate of tree mortality and the ability to sustain treehealth during variations in seasonal rainfall.

In summary, regardless of the method of application, biocharincorporated into or around the root zone of a plant at ratios ofbetween 1:999 to 1:1 biochar to soil, i.e. a volumetric percentage of0.1% to 50%, increases the water and nutrient holding and retentioncapacity of the soil where it is applied. However, application does notnecessarily need to be restricted or limited to these ratios. Biocharcan be added to soil at a concentration of 0.01% up to 99% dependingupon the application, plant type and plant size. As most crop plantsextract greater than 90% of their water from the first twenty-fourinches below the soil surface, the above applications will generally beeffective incorporating the biochar around the root zone from the topsurface of the soil to a depth of 24″ below the top surface of the soil,or alternatively, within a 24″ radius surrounding the roots regardlessof root depth or proximity from the top surface of the soil. When theplant roots are closer to the surface, the incorporation of the biocharwithin the top 2-6″ inches of the soil surface may also be effective.Greater depths are more beneficial for plants having larger root zones,such as trees.

Similarly to the root zones, biochar may also be applied within a 24″radius around the distribution of water that is delivered from both lowflow and high flow irrigation systems. For the purpose of thisapplication, “low flow system” includes, but is not limited to, microsprays, drip emitters, and drip lines and “high flow systems” includesbut is not limited to fixed sprays, rotors, bubblers, and soaker hoses.For example, for drip lines, because the placement of water is appliedand distributed at or near the drip line, biochar may be applied in thearea surrounding the drip irrigation pipes at similar depth,concentrations and quantities, such that application in the area aroundthe drip irrigation pipes is similar to the application around the plantroot zones. For fixed sprays, biochar may be applied within a 24″ radiusrelative to the distance to which the water is sprayed and distributedinstead of at or near the fixed spray irrigation head. Surface andsubsurface irrigation systems may also vary the application of biochar.The application does not, however, need to be restricted or limited tothe application specifications for plant root zones. Because the rate ofwater movement, water distribution, water discharge, water volume, andwater placement vary depending on the irrigation system operated,different depths, concentrations and quantities of biochar may beapplied to correspond to the particular irrigation system to which it isbeing applied. In addition, if the biochar has been created into aslurry, powder suspended in liquid, as described previously, it can alsobe applied directly through the irrigation tape or pipes.

Although the utilization of the chemical and physical properties ofbiochar for optimal plant growth would ideally be most effective whenapplied to plants during or prior to their peak growing cycle and atmaintenance periods, all of the applications discussed above can beapplied at any time during the different stages of plant growth orground preparation as needed. Similarly, the methods of application canbe repeated as many times as needed from year to year depending onfactors not limited to plant type, climate, soil properties, topography,and light.

A method for applying porous carbonaceous particles to soil for purposeof cultivating plants, where at least 95% of the porous carbonaceousparticles have a particle size less than or equal to 10 mm, the methodcomprising: incorporating the porous carbonaceous particles to the soilsurrounding the plant at a depth between 0-24 inches from the soilsurface, where the porous carbonaceous particles are positioned in thearea surrounding the roots of the plants in a ratio of between 1:999 to1:1 porous carbonaceous particles to soil.

The foregoing description of implementations has been presented forpurposes of illustration and description. It is not exhaustive and doesnot limit the claimed inventions to the precise form disclosed.Modifications and variations are possible in light of the abovedescription or may be acquired from practicing the invention. The claimsand their equivalents define the scope of the invention.

We claim:
 1. A method for applying porous carbonaceous particles to soilfor purpose of cultivating plants having roots, where at least 95% ofthe porous carbonaceous particles have a particle size less than orequal to 10 mm, the method comprising: incorporating the porouscarbonaceous particles into the soil surrounding the root zone of theplants roots, where the porous carbonaceous particles are positioned inthe area surrounding the roots of the plants where the volumetricpercentage of the treated porous carbonaceous particles in the soilsurrounding the root zone is between 0.1% to 10%.
 2. The method of claim1 where the incorporation of the porous carbonaceous particles to thesoil surrounding the plant roots further includes the steps of: creatingvoids in the area of soil where the plants are to be planted; mixing theporous carbonaceous particles with backfill soil at a ratio of between1:999 to 1:1 porous carbonaceous particles to soil; filling the voidswith a backfill soil mixture to cover the bottom of each of the voids;placing plants in the voids; and filling any open area in the voidsurrounding the roots of the plants with the backfill soil mixture. 3.The method of claim 2 where the plant is a tree and the porouscarbonaceous particles are mixed with the backfill soil at a rate ofapproximately five percent porous carbonaceous particles in the backfillsoil.
 4. The method of claim 2 where the plant is a vine.
 5. The methodof claim 2 where the plant is a flowering plant, the voids are createdin containers and the porous carbonaceous particles are mixed with thebackfill soil.
 6. The method of claim 2 where the plant is a vegetableproducing plant, the voids are created in containers and the porouscarbonaceous particles are mixed with the backfill soil.
 7. The methodof claim 1 where the porous carbonaceous particles are derived fromwood.
 8. The method of claim 1 where the porous carbonaceous particlesare derived from coconut shells.
 9. The method of claim 1 where theporous carbonaceous particles have been treated by infusing a liquidinto the macropores of the plurality of porous carbonaceous particles.10. The method of claim 9 where the treatment for infusing the liquidinto the macropores of the plurality of porous carbonaceous particles isa vacuum processing treatment.
 11. The method of claim 9 where thetreatment for infusing a liquid into the macropores of the plurality ofporous carbonaceous particles is a surfactant infusion treatment.
 12. Amethod for enhancing a soil environment with porous carbonaceousparticles for purpose of cultivating plants, the method comprising thesteps of: creating a void for the acceptance of a plant or plant seed;mixing porous carbonaceous particles into soil at a ratio of between1:999 to 1:1 porous carbonaceous particles to soil, where at least 95%of the porous carbonaceous particles have a particle size less than orequal to 10 mm; and adding the soil mixture to the void.
 13. The methodof claim 12 where the void is filled with the soil mixture such that thesoil mixture covers the bottom of the void, where a plant is placed inthe void on top of the soil mixture and where any open area in the voidsurrounding the roots of the plant placed in the void is then filledwith the soil mixture.
 14. The method of claim 13 where the plant is atree and the porous carbonaceous particles are mixed with backfill soilin the ratio of approximately one part porous carbonaceous particles tonineteen parts soil to create the soil mixture.
 15. The method of claim13 where the plant is a vine and the porous carbonaceous particles aremixed with backfill soil.
 16. The method of claim 13 where the plant isa flowering plant, the voids are created in containers and the soilmixture is placed in the containers.
 17. The method of claim 13 wherethe plant is a vegetable producing plant, the voids are created incontainers and the soil mixture is placed in the containers.
 18. Themethod of claim 12 where the porous carbonaceous particles are derivedfrom wood.
 19. The method of claim 12 where the porous carbonaceousparticles are derived from coconut shells.
 20. The method of claim 12where the porous carbonaceous particles have been treated by infusing aliquid into the macropores of the plurality of porous carbonaceousparticles.
 21. The method of claim 20 where the treatment for infusingthe liquid into the macropores of the plurality of porous carbonaceousparticles is a vacuum processing treatment.
 22. The method of claim 20where the treatment for infusing a liquid into the macropores of theplurality of porous carbonaceous particles is a surfactant infusiontreatment.
 23. A method for enhancing a soil environment having plantbeds with porous carbonaceous particles for purpose of cultivatingplants, the method comprising: incorporating porous carbonaceousparticles into the top 1-6″ inches of the soil of the plant beds, whereat least 95% of the porous carbonaceous particles have a particle sizeless than or equal to 10 mm, and where the porous carbonaceous particlesare incorporated into the soil of the plant beds at a rate of between0.5 to 10 cubic yards per acre.
 24. The method of claim 23 where theporous carbonaceous particles are incorporated into the top 2-3″ inchesof the plant beds.
 25. The method of claim 23 where the porouscarbonaceous particles are incorporated into the top 4-6″ inches of theplant beds.
 26. The method of claim 23 where the porous carbonaceousparticles are incorporated into the soil by spreading the porouscarbonaceous particles over the surface of the soil and then tilling thesoil or bedding the soil up.
 27. The method of claim 23 where the porouscarbonaceous particles are incorporated into the soil of the plant bedsat a rate of between 0.5 to 10 cubic yards per acre.
 28. The method ofclaim 23 where the porous carbonaceous particles are incorporated intothe soil of the plant beds at a rate of between 0.5 to 5 cubic yards peracre.
 29. The method of claim 23 where the porous carbonaceous particlesare incorporated into the soil of the plant beds by side dressing theplant beds with a spreader and a disk.
 30. The method of claim 23 wherethe porous carbonaceous particles are incorporated into the top 4-6″ ofthe soil on the side of the plant bed.
 31. The method of claim 23 wherethe porous carbonaceous particles are derived from wood.
 32. The methodof claim 23 where the porous carbonaceous particles are derived fromcoconut shells.
 33. The method of claim 23 where the porous carbonaceousparticles have been treated by infusing a liquid into the macropores ofthe plurality of porous carbonaceous particles.
 34. The method of claim33 where the treatment for infusing the liquid into the macropores ofthe plurality of porous carbonaceous particles is a vacuum processingtreatment.
 35. The method of claim 33 where the treatment for infusing aliquid into the macropores of the plurality of porous carbonaceousparticles is a surfactant infusion treatment.
 36. A method for applyingporous carbonaceous particles to soil surrounding a tree for the purposeof cultivating tree growth, the method comprising: incorporating porouscarbonaceous particles into the top 1-6″ inches of the soil under thecanopy of the tree in the drip zone of the tree, where at least 95% ofthe porous carbonaceous particles have a particle size less than orequal to 10 mm and where the volumetric percentage of the porouscarbonaceous particles in the soil is between 0.1% to 10%.
 37. Themethod of claim 36 where the step of incorporating the porouscarbonaceous particles further comprising: top dressing the area aroundthe tree defined by the tree canopy, spreading a ¼″ to 1″ layer ofporous carbonaceous particles across such area around the tree andeither raking the porous carbonaceous particles into the top 1-4″ ofsoil in such area or covering with mulch or compost.
 38. The method ofclaim 36 where the porous carbonaceous particles are incorporated intothe top 2-3″ of soil.
 39. The method of claim 36 where the porouscarbonaceous particles are incorporated into the soil by use of an augeror an air spade.
 40. The method of claim 36 where the porouscarbonaceous particles are incorporated into the soil by use of a rakeor tiller.
 41. The method of claim 36 where the porous carbonaceousparticles are derived from wood.
 42. The method of claim 36 where theporous carbonaceous particles are derived from coconut shells.
 43. Themethod of claim 36 where the porous carbonaceous particles have beentreated by infusing a liquid into the macropores of the plurality ofporous carbonaceous particles.
 44. The method of claim 43 where thetreatment for infusing the liquid into the macropores of the pluralityof porous carbonaceous particles is a vacuum processing treatment. 45.The method of claim 43 where the treatment for infusing a liquid intothe macropores of the plurality of porous carbonaceous particles is asurfactant infusion treatment.
 46. A method for applying porouscarbonaceous particles to soil for purpose of cultivating plants havingroots, the method comprising incorporating the porous carbonaceousparticles into the soil surrounding the plant roots at a depth ofbetween 0-24 inches from the soil surface, where the volumetricpercentage of the porous carbonaceous particles in the soil surroundingthe root zone is between 0.1% to 10%.
 47. The method of claim 46 wherethe porous carbonaceous particles have one or more of the followingproperties: (i) an Anion Exchange Capacity (“AEC”) greater than 5 meq/l;(ii) a Cation Exchange Capacity (“CEC”) greater than 5 meq/l; (iii) anash content less than 15% (mass basis); (iv) a hydrophobicity index ofbelow 12; or (v) a pH between 4 and
 9. 48. The method of claim 46 wherethe porous carbonaceous particles are applied by laying down multiplebands of porous carbonaceous material on the soil surface.
 49. Themethod of claim 46 where the porous carbonaceous particles areincorporated into the soil surrounding an irrigation system within a 24″radius of where the distribution of water is deposited.
 50. The methodof claim 46 where the porous carbonaceous particles have a dynamicrepose of 45 degrees or less.
 51. The method of claim 46 where theporous carbonaceous particles have a compressibility index of 25 orless.
 52. The method of claim 46 where the porous carbonaceous particleshave a moisture level on a weight basis of between 5 to 30 percent. 53.The method of claim 46 where the porous carbonaceous particles have aparticle size distribution such that at least 40% or more of theparticles (mass basis) are between 0.3 mm and 5.0 in diameter.
 54. Themethod of claim 46 where the porous carbonaceous particles have aHausner ratio of 1.34 or less.